Int J Adv Counselling (2010) 32:46–55 DOI 10.1007/s10447-009-9088-y ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Leadership and Leader Behavior in Counseling: Neglected Skills Louis Vincent Paradise & Peggy T. Ceballos & Stephanie Hall

Published online: 5 January 2010 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract Leadership and leader behavior are important topics for any professional discipline. However, these issues have been neglected throughout the entire short history of counseling. Despite the fact that many counselors attain various leadership positions, little attention has been paid to training for leadership. While much has been written about the various roles of counselors, leadership and the behavior of leaders are rarely the focus. It is our contention that counselors, because of their unique training, can be effective leaders in a wide variety of settings. This article argues for a greater emphasis by counselor education on the role of counselor as leader. Keywords Leadership . Leader behavior . Counselor leadership training

Introduction The demand for effective leadership and leaders has always been great. Since ancient times, scholars, theologians, and people in general, have been fascinated by leadership and leaders. Mythology abounds with stories of leaders and archetypical heroes. Regardless of the organization or institution, leadership is a skill-set that is difficult, at best, to fully comprehend. Much has been written about leadership in all areas and disciplines over the years. In fact, Gladding (2007) has pointed out, and we agree, that leadership is the most researched topic in the world. Furthering the public’s fascination with leadership, U.S. News & World Report, a popular news magazine in the U.S., in conjunction with Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government, has been conducting a poll for the past five years on America’s best leaders. Their annual poll includes people from all walks of American life who are cited for their leadership achievements. The most current list can be found at www.usnews.com/leaders. A recent Google™ search of the word leadership listed well over 148 million entries—a few more than is possible to review for this article. Similarly, a search of Amazon.com™ L. V. Paradise (*) : P. T. Ceballos : S. Hall Department of Educational Leadership, Counseling, & Foundations, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA e-mail: [email protected]

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book titles on leadership yielded more than 20,000 different books available. Not surprisingly, the current market is still quite fascinated by leaders and leadership. While much has been written and researched on the topic, universal understanding of the phenomenon of leadership has yet to be achieved. A small sampling of some of the current best sellers is instructive and reflects the public’s preoccupation with attempting to understand the notion. These best selling titles included: “Strengths-Based Leadership” (2009) by Tom Rath and Barry Conchie; “Leadership” (2005) by Rudolph Giuliani and Ken Kurson; “The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader: Being the Person That Others Will Want to Follow” (2007) by John Maxwell; “The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership” (1998) by John Maxwell; “Monday Morning Leadership” (2002) by David Cottrell; “The Leadership Challenge” (2007) by James Kouzes and Barry Posner; and “The Practice of Adaptive Leadership” (2009) by Ronald Heifetz, Alexander Grashow, and Marty Linsky. These “how to” or self-help leadership books reflect the public’s interest in what makes a good leader. While the attention and interest are present in the general public, little agreement exists on what really constitutes leadership and how one can learn to be a leader. Many of the various approaches to understanding the concept have their historical bases in psychology, e.g., trait approaches—what traits differentiate leaders from non-leaders; behavioral approaches—which behaviors do leaders engage in and can one learn them; contingency approaches—how the components of leadership style, subordinate characteristics, and situational elements impact one another; and situational approaches—the context in which leadership is exercised and the idea that what is needed changes from situation to situation. Approaches and viewpoints abound. The wealth of information on leadership is great; but with so much available, it is not surprising that so little is actually known.

Leadership Primer Most evidence clearly suggests that it is possible to learn good leadership skills (e.g., Bass 1990; Behling and Rauch 1985; Brungardt 1997; Fiedler 1996; Goleman et al. 2002). Indeed, MBA programs, the military, the police, educational administration programs, sales programs, to name just a few, gauge their success on their ability to train and develop leaders. So, if one can learn to be a leader, what is being learned? Leadership, simplistically defined, is “one’s ability to influence other individuals or groups toward goal achievement” (Rauch and Behling 1984, p. 46). Another commonly held belief is that leadership is a process and it requires followers (Hollander 1978). Without followers, there is no leadership. Much to the surprise of many, as Bolman and Deal (1991) have reiterated, leadership exists among people; it does not reside within the person of the leader. Terms such as administration and management often involve creating systematic results— organizing, coordinating, oversight, and getting things done (Koontz 1961; Rush 2003). Not surprisingly, these two concepts are complementary to leadership and vital to the overall success of the leader. Indeed, effective leaders realize that success is impossible without effective administrators and managers. Of course, the reverse is also true; without leadership, the administrators and managers would be directionless.

Counseling and Leadership Counselors demonstrate leadership and leader behavior in many domains across the broad spectrum of professional endeavors. To what extent has their training been helpful to them?

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To what degree do their unique skill-sets and attributes facilitate leadership success? How did these counselors become leaders? How do counseling/therapy skills—for example, problem solving, active listening, conflict resolution, anger management, managing a private practice business, to name but a few—transfer to leadership settings? How do they assist or mentor others in developing leadership skills? While little direct research on these questions has been completed, several related employment surveys of the field have been conducted over the years (e.g., Fitzgerald and Osipow 1986; Gerstein and Shullman 1992; Kirchner and Setchfield 2005; Zimpfer 1993) that provide some insights into the various occupational roles of counselors. Collectively, these studies provide evidence that the vast majority of professional activities for the counseling profession revolve around practice, teaching, consulting and, to a lesser extent, research. Notably, leader behavior as exemplified by administrative positions held by counselors is represented, but at a much smaller level—generally less than10% of the overall activity. These typically take the form of directors of counseling centers, chairs of academic departments and school counseling supervisors, directors of professional organizations, and chairing professional association committees and task forces. While it is true that little has been done in training for leadership, substantial attention by various writers has been devoted overall to issues of counseling’s professional identity and to the skills needed in its training programs (e.g., Feit and Lloyd 1990; Gale and Austin 2003; Myers 1995) and, in the U.S., by the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) (e.g., CACREP 2009). Not surprisingly, leadership and leader behavior training are rarely discussed within counseling. Two notable exceptions are CACREP’s 2009 Standards (2009), where leadership and advocacy are specifically identified as counselor training outcomes, and Chwalisz’s (2003) call for training programs to prepare their students to be “ in the fray, making their unique contributions to professional practice and policy” (p. 499). Indeed, the increased and recent attention by the counseling profession to issues of social justice and advocacy may be a harbinger for increased leadership training for counselors in other areas besides simply academic programs. Recent attention by the American Counseling Association (ACA) focusing on social justice, advocacy, and other related issues such as services for disaster relief, equity issues of race, religion and gender, suggests that advocacy for those who need a voice in society is a major policy imperative for all counselor practitioners and certainly one where leadership and leader behavior are needed and expected. This broader defined need for leadership is finding its way to many related areas of counseling practice. For example, Hawkins and Shohet (2006), in their recent work on supervision in the UK, address the need for leadership in developing supervision policy and practice in counseling organizations. They describe seven stages for this process to occur. “In the same way that an individual supervisor’s development is a continuing process, so is the development of supervisory practice and policy in both organizations and the profession” (p. 216). Similarly, Amatea and West-Olatunji (2007) have called for school counselors to adopt leadership roles in high poverty schools where they can facilitate family involvement for their schools. This advocacy role for school counselors is needed to assist teachers in connecting with the families of students. Taking a leadership role in assisting school to reach out to their high poverty communities is critical to a school’s success and has been advocated by others as a needed expansion of the school counselor’s role (Colbert et al. 2006; Lee 2005). Others have argued for extending the role of school counseling to highlight leadership (e.g., Adelman and Taylor 2002; Bemak 2000; Dollarhide 2008). Unfortunately, as Curtis and Sherlock (2006) aptly point out, many counselors who assume

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leadership positions and roles in schools and agencies are ill-prepared because of the dearth of literature and attention on leadership practices. We heartily concur. While many of these efforts mentioned above are targeted in the United States, similar efforts to expand the nature of school leadership can be found elsewhere with increasing frequency. Higham and Hopkins (2007) in the UK have argued for professionally-led system leadership, which they define as working for the success and welfare of students in other schools in addition to one’s own—a cooperative partnership federation in effect. They recommend, essentially, that better performing schools partner with the less well performing to improve school success. This effort is similar to the ‘partner schools’ approach in the UK (Harris et al. 2006) to provide new leadership to schools in need through self-review, action and evaluation. Other areas of counseling have been recognized as in need of a focus on leadership and leader behavior as well. Niles et al. (2009) have commented on an international symposium on vocational and career counseling held in Padua, Italy. They argued for the need for greater leadership in policy development and political advocacy for counselors in the career development field. The writers cited noteworthy worldwide career counseling efforts in Australia, Canada, Brazil, and Turkey as strong models for how advocacy and leadership can improve the career and vocational counseling services in a country. Related, for mental health practitioners, Mellin (2009) has called for a greater leadership role for children’s mental health counselors. Recognizing that one in five children has a diagnosable mental or addictive disorder, and one in ten has a serious emotional disorder, she extols the need to face this global crisis in mental health with leadership advocacy for our children. Over the years, there have been calls to provide curriculum attention to needed training areas that have been unaddressed in counseling. For example, Abrieu et al. (2000) and Arredondo and Arciniega (2001), in reviewing the then current level of multicultural training in the field, argued for infusing multiculturalism into the entire curriculum as well as competency-based approaches to multicultural training in counseling programs. Similarly, Fey and Kelly (1996) argued for greater immersion in ethics by integrating ethics into all coursework. Similarly, it is our contention that leadership training, regarded as a growing needed training area, should be included as a component of counselor education programs.

Characteristics of a Leader Across the entire study of leadership, the notion of leader attributes has been well examined. As early as 1948, Schoenfeld (1948) summarized the substantial research that had already accumulated on the psychological characteristics of leaders. Many traits and attributes were noted that discriminated leaders from non-leaders. More recent writers (Blake and Mouton 1985; Bolman and Deal 1991; Conger 1988; Goleman et al. 2002), have focused on understanding such things as emotional intelligence, character, courage of conviction, charisma, professionalism, integrity and candor, to name just a few of the multitude of skills and attributes that have been associated with effective leadership. It seems to us that many professional counselors possess these characteristics, together with all the important skill-sets for understanding and influencing human behavior and human nature. Most leadership experts would agree with Fiedler (1996) that leadership is a process of interaction between leader, follower and the situation and that leaders are made, not born. Supporting this, Taylor (2005), in a qualitative study of Australian academic developers, interviewed individuals at 17 Australian universities and concluded that leadership was not

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defined as a prescribed set of characteristics, but as a synergy among the person, the role, the institutional context, and the strategies used. These leadership findings in related educational areas, we believe, can readily generalize to counseling and counselor behaviors. With that in mind, it is easy to envision counselors assuming leadership positions in greater numbers. With the complexity of this phenomenon in mind, the preparation for leadership can be readily incorporated into counselor education programs.

Leadership Training Approaches Many leaders are essentially ill-prepared for the roles they assume. In most schools or organizations, with few exceptions, the primary approach to training for positions of authority is on the job training (OJT). The approach is basically trial and error and clearly this is not the best method of developing leadership. It seems evident that business, government, and industry have led the field in formal and systematic training for its leaders, whether by means of an academic program or a practical management training program. These disciplines realized early on that there was a critical need for executive training. Unfortunately for counseling students, there has been little leadership training to date. The senior author can speak directly to this issue. He received no training prior to assuming any leadership position—program coordinator, department chair, college dean, vice chancellor for academic affairs, or provost and executive vice chancellor. He received no training as part of his doctoral program for any leadership position, with the exception of some mentoring from his major professor. Over the years, in his various leadership positions, he often found it difficult to identify good people for subordinate administrative positions, so he spent time developing ways to identify individuals with leadership potential and then, to confect methods to enhance their leader skills. While several individuals did develop into competent leaders and administrators over time, to assist others moving into such roles, approaches to training for leadership within counseling are needed. We discuss a few that have merit.

Leadership as Part of Academic Training It is conceivable to build courses into the counseling curriculum that directly address leadership. Almost all business and educational administration programs require course work on leadership; leadership theory, leader behavior and such like. It may be true that the list of required courses in the counselor education curricula is already large and it is likely to get even more so with the new CACREP standards for 2009. However, one can find courses in a variety of advanced techniques, consultation, coaching, supervision, and teaching that can each profit by addressing leadership and related issues in their course content. It is to be expected that many counseling program graduates, at some point in their careers will be involved in leadership positions, assume roles in a professional organizations, or just get “into the fray” of important issues as Chwalisz (2003) has encouraged. Given this, it seems reasonable to argue for some formal leadership training consideration—credit or non-credit—as part of the curriculum. One easily could require non-credit seminars in leadership/professional development. We have included this as a supplemental aspect of group supervision sessions with doctoral students. The first part of class is spent discussing their individual supervision of first year

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students and the second part concentrates on leadership and professional development issues. Requiring training without establishing a course or courses may solve the problem of inflated course requirements and, for the most part, provide the necessary content. This approach could serve to complement and expand any individual mentoring that may be part of the program. One notable exception to the absence of formal training in leadership by academia is a new certificate program developed by the University of California Riverside in 2009 for practicing school counselors. The program, “Advanced School Counseling: Leadership and Advocacy, Data and Accountability Skills” is specifically designed to focus on the development of personal leadership and advocacy skills for counselors working in K-12 school organizations. We believe that programs such as this for practitioners to receive direct and formal training in leadership and leader behaviors will grow in numbers as professionals at all levels and areas realize the importance of these skills.

Workshops for Doctoral Trainees Rather than regular courses or sessions, a series of scheduled workshops, perhaps 2–3 per semester, that cover significant content could be offered on a periodic basis. These are best allocated to interested faculty either involving a team-teaching approach or to several faculty members to present separately. Typically, 90 min to two hours would seem adequate time for these. The senior author has incorporated leadership aspects into non-credit workshops for doctoral students that have focused on the topic of obtaining and keeping an academic position.

Inservice Approaches It is quite common for established organizations to provide their own leadership training to their members or employees (Byham et al. 2002; Welber 2003). This has been common in business and industry and has been used effectively in higher education as well. This inservice notion is well-established in certain quarters and can work with doctoral trainees as well as with young faculty or staff in agencies. It does, however, take an experienced and effective leader to do the mentoring necessary to develop leadership talent in new faculty, trainees or agency staff. When the senior author served as a college dean, he regularly held academic leadership sessions with invited promising young faculty. These groups convened in a seminar-type format over the span of the semester. Several individuals went on to be department chairs and deans. Similarly, leader internships were established to “grow” a cadre of faculty who could develop a sense of leader behavior in a university setting. This involved placing, in this case more senior, faculty, to the office of the provost on a part-time basis for one semester where they participated in all the major activities of the office. This seemed to be a good mentoring experience for all involved as well as providing some added assistance for the office. It could be modified for use by faculty in counselor training programs to educate graduate assistants in similar leadership skills, and with creativity the principles could also be applied in counseling service settings. Formal mentoring programs work well for some individuals; however, not every person gets appropriate mentoring and some counselors regardless of the organization get none.

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Sometimes, senior staff can be exceptional mentors for some professional activities, but they may not be as successful for mentoring leadership behavior. It is conventional wisdom that there are many great professors or practitioners who have little to say or offer about leadership. Thus, some caution should be exercised when assuming that senior staff mentoring will necessarily lead to successful mentoring of leadership behavior on their part. The simple rule is to have good leaders mentor leadership behavior for students and other young professionals.

Organizational and Professional Association Training Many professional organizations in the U.S., Canada, and the UK, such as ACA, the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP), the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES), as well as local and regional organizations, such as the Southern Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (SACES) and Chi Sigma Iota, conduct mentoring and leadership training for their members. These activities, often held as part of regional or national conferences, can be a great source of information and experience. Often these take the form of intensive all-day workshops where leaders in the field or organizational officers present various aspects of being in a successful profession. There are an increasing number of formal leadership networks that offer valuable training to practitioners on a regular basis. The International Leadership Association (ILA) traces its roots to 1995 with the Salzburg Seminar in Global Leadership held in Austria. Through its recent affiliation with the Kellogg Leadership Studies Project in the U.S., it conducts conferences and has become the largest international and interdisciplinary organization devoted solely to the study and development of leadership. Similarly, a good example, and there are many, of local leadership institutes for mental health practitioners is the California Institute for Mental Health’s “Leadership Institutes”. They focus on leader training related to mental health policy, politics, legislative activity, and public mental health systems. Their goal is to help good leaders become great leaders. In addition to being informative about leadership, these groups are a great networking source, especially when it comes to finding employment or volunteering for service on a professional organization committee or task force. The cost to get involved usually is minimal or sometimes free and the dividends are usually substantial. In fact, Friedman and Phillips (2002) in a study of U.K. professional associations found that more than half of the organizations they surveyed (over 100) had opportunities for mentoring. In our opinion, these activities are excellent opportunities to inculcate leader values in professional counselors. Another consideration, if there are no other programmatic options available, is simply regularly reading issues of ACA’s Counseling Today, Chi Sigma Iota’s Exemplar, ILA’s monthly newsletter, The Member Connection, the American Psychological Association’s Psychology International, COGNICA, the newletter of the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association, and gradPSYCH. Publications such as these contain excellent information for students to develop a feel for professionalism and “the big picture” in counseling, including aspects of leadership. Subscriptions often require membership, but student rates are usually available and affordable. There are usually many articles in each issue that can serve as a learning or discussion tool around issues of leadership. Similarly, even professional honor societies, for which students may be eligible, have leader training opportunities or regular publications that may be instructive. The bottom line is to incorporate things into the program related to leadership. If a structured leader training

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program cannot be made part of the education experience, it would still be helpful to do something on a lesser scale to expose students to its importance. This will help students get ‘into the fray’ rather than watching it from the sidelines.

Conclusion As counselors occupy many leadership positions across the broad spectrum of professional endeavors and as leadership is essential for the development of any profession, the need to teach them how to build on counseling and related skills to become good leaders grows. Thus, incorporating leadership training into the counseling curriculum and promoting it within the profession at large would seem important. Increased attention has been given to many other aspects of educational growth in the training of counselors; however, the development of leadership skills seems to be an area of professional growth that has been neglected within the profession. The question does not seem to be whether counselors need to be trained as leaders, but how can such training take place in an effective manner. As one looks at the history of leadership, it seems clear that counseling as a discipline already incorporates many of these skills. Thus, the training does not have to be so much on how to acquire such skills, but more on how to apply already learned skills to successfully lead others. As discussed in this article, there are many different ways to incorporate leadership into the training of counselors. It is recommended that future efforts look at more effective approaches for preparing counselors to be leaders and to assume leadership roles. Also, there is a need to examine which aspects or skill-sets of a counselor’s training contribute to good leadership behaviors; that is, the transferability of counseling skills and methods to leadership. If good leaders are made, then counseling programs should focus more on helping to make counselors into effective leaders.

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