J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498 DOI 10.1007/s10933-009-9345-4
ORIGINAL PAPER
A 60-year record of rainfall from the sediments of Jinheung Pond, Jeongeup, Korea Wook-Hyun Nahm Æ Gyoo Ho Lee Æ Dong-Yoon Yang Æ Ju-Yong Kim Æ Kenji Kashiwaya Æ Masayoshi Yamamoto Æ Aya Sakaguchi
Received: 20 February 2008 / Accepted: 8 May 2009 / Published online: 28 May 2009 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract This paper describes mean grain-size data from the 137Cs- and 210Pb-dated sediment core BS-3 (33-cm long) recovered from Jinheung Pond, located in the southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula. Grain-size analysis of the Jinheung Pond sediments shows a clear signal for changes in annual precipitation over the past 60 years. Instrumental records of annual precipitation (AP) and the annual summation of the precipitation of [50 mm per day (AP50), which reflects the energy available for sediment transport, correlate well with the mean grain-size distributions measured in the core. The most plausible mechanism for this response in mean grain size is variations in the annual amount and intensity of precipitation. Heavy precipitation enhances soil
erosion over the catchment area and increases the transport capacity of streams and rivers. Thus, coarser mean grain size should reflect higher precipitation, and smaller mean grain size should reflect lower rainfall. In the data from core BS-3, however, grainsize peaks attributed to increased annual precipitation are not prominent. This is because a dam prevents removal of fine particles from the pond via the outflow. Therefore, the mean grain-size value represents somewhat larger sediments together with fine clays. The results of this study show that sediments of dammed lakes and ponds are well suited for highresolution environmental investigations, especially for records of changes in precipitation over time. Keywords Jinheung Pond Lake/pond sediment Dam Precipitation Grain-size
W.-H. Nahm (&) D.-Y. Yang J.-Y. Kim Geological & Environmental Hazards Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM), Daejeon 305-350, Korea e-mail:
[email protected] G. H. Lee E&P Team, Korea Gas Corporation (KOGAS), Seongnam, Gyeonggi 463-754, Korea K. Kashiwaya Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan M. Yamamoto A. Sakaguchi Low Level Radioactivity Laboratory, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
Introduction Sediment profiles in lakes and ponds are widely recognized as archives for paleoenvironments, because they can provide important information on past climate and hydrology. Detailed reconstructions of the history of natural processes may improve our understanding of potential future environmental changes. The major advantage of sediment records’ very high (decadal or annual) resolution is that they can be
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compared with historical meteorological observations and process-related information. There have, however, been few studies using lake and pond sediments to assess environmental changes. This is due to the great increase in recent times of anthropogenic pollution and disturbances (Kashiwaya 1996; Laird et al. 1996; Campbell 1998; Struck et al. 2000; Doner 2003; Peng et al. 2005; Bjorck et al. 2006). Numerous analytical methods have been used to study paleoenvironmental changes. Among them, the grain-size distribution of lake and pond sediments is generally accepted as a useful proxy for past changes in precipitation. Several researchers have demonstrated that lake and pond sediments record rainfall events (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya 1996; Rodbell et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2002; Noren et al. 2002). Heavy precipitation enhances soil erosion over a catchment area and increases the transport capacity of streams and rivers. Consequently, coarser mean grain size reflects heavier and increased amounts of rainfall, and vice versa (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya 1996; Peng et al. 2005). Jinheung Pond is a small, dammed pond situated on the southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula. Massive economic growth and agricultural development in the Jinheung Pond area began in the early 1990s. As no historic dredging of the pond has been reported (Gamgok Township Office 2003), we are confident that a continuous sediment record is preserved in the pond sediments, and thus a correlation of the sedimentological variables with instrumental measurements is possible. We examined stratigraphic variations in grain size distribution in sediment core BS-3 (33 cm in length) from Jinheung Pond, and compared the data with instrumental records of annual precipitation near the study area. We also characterized the sediments deposited behind the dam. These data provide insights into the past and potential future environmental changes in and around Jinheung Pond.
Study area Jinheung Pond (35°410 4200 N, 126°550 1300 E) was a small pond until the early twentieth century, but now functions as a water reservoir for irrigation (Fig. 1). The dam on Jinheung Pond, which is *3.8 m high, was built in 1945. Today, Jinheung Pond (Gamgok
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Town, Jeongeup City) has an average depth of 2.2 m, a water surface area of 8,900 m2 within a small catchment of 173,000 m2, and a water storage capacity of 19,580 m3. One small stream brings freshwater into Jinheung Pond. The main land-use types in the drainage basin have not changed over the decades. At higher elevations, land cover is mainly forest, which consists of pine and broadleaf trees. Lower elevation areas are occupied mostly by agricultural lands, used for cultivating cabbage, lettuce, maize and rice. The irrigation season extends from March to June, with maximum demand in April and May. Although the pond water level drops during periods of irrigation, the sediments are rarely exposed. Jinheung Pond is located in the mid-latitude temperate zone, which has seasonal winds and a continental climate. Average temperature varied from a low of -14.4°C in January to a high of 29.5°C in August in recent decades. The yearly average temperature is 13.1°C. Mean annual rainfall is 1,136 mm. Due to high North Pacific atmospheric pressure, the region receives 55% of its precipitation in summer months. The prevailing winds, generally from the NW and SE, can reach a speed of 1.1 m/s (Jeongeup City Office 2003). The bedrock of the region consists of Jurassic coarse to medium-grained biotite granite (Park et al. 2001).
Materials and methods A 33-cm-long sediment core (core BS-3) was taken from the center (Fig. 1) of Jinheung Pond (Fig. 2) on July 2003 using a hand-held cylindrical gravity core sampler with an inner diameter of 50 mm. The core was sub-sampled in the laboratory at 1-cm intervals. After the removal of carbonates by 10% HCl and organic matter by 30% H2O2 and the use of sodium hexametaphosphate as the dispersing agent, grainsize analysis of the bulk sediment was carried out with a Mastersizer 2000 laser particle analyzer detecting a 0.02–2,000 micro-meter size range (Malvern Instruments, Ltd., Worcestershire, UK). Grainsize parameters were calculated following Folk and Ward (1957), and correlated with precipitation records during the past 60 years from the Jeonju Weather Station (operated by Korea Meteorological Administration) located 15 km northeast of the study area.
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Baeksan Temple
BS-3 inlet
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Fig. 1 Location of Jinheung Pond and the coring site (core BS-3)
energy, hyper-pure n-type germanium coaxial gamma-ray LOAX HPGe detector (EG&G Ortec, Oak Ridge, Tenn., USA) at the Low Level Radioactivity Laboratory, Kanazawa University, Japan. The 137 Cs activities of the sub-samples were measured using the net counts at the 661.7 keV photopeak. The 210 Pbtotal activities of the sub-samples were measured using the 46.5 keV gamma ray for 210Pb, and the 226 Ra activities were measured using the 351.9 keV gamma ray for 214Pb, a short-lived daughter of 226Ra.
Results and discussion Fig. 2 Jinheung Pond photographed from the southwest 137
We established an age-depth model for core BS-3 using 137Cs and 210Pb dating. The radioactivities of 137 Cs and 210Pbexcess in the sub-samples were measured using a high-resolution, low background, low
Cs dating
The radionuclide 137Cs (half-life 30.17 year) is a fission product initially introduced into the environment in significant quantities as a result of
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atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted in the early 1950s. 137Cs is deposited as fallout, which is rapidly and almost irreversibly adsorbed onto sediment, particularly clay particles (Tamura 1964; Alberts and Muller 1979; Livens and Rimmer 1988) and possibly organic matter (Tahir and Stewart 1975) in freshwater systems. Dating with 137Cs data is based on assumptions about the distribution of 137Cs in the depth profile (Ritchie and McHenry 1990; Ely et al. 1992; Pinglot et al. 1999). The annual deposition of 137Cs was characterized by great temporal variation, and the highest 137Cs activity may represent the period of maximum radionuclide fallout in the northern hemisphere. This is associated with the peak of atomic weapons testing in 1963 (Ritchie and McHenry 1990; He et al. 1996; Collins
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et al. 1997; Kang et al. 1997; Andersen et al. 2000; Yan et al. 2002). In core BS-3, the maximum 137Cs peak (19.60 ± 1.42 Bq/kg) corresponds to a depth of 19 cm. In accordance with 137Cs studies in other regions of the world, we assigned a date of 1963 to this depth (Fig. 3).
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Pbexcess dating
210
Pb is a natural radioactive isotope formed as a product of the 238U decay series, with a half-life of 22.26 years. 238U in the Earth’s crust decays to 226Ra and further to 222Rn, which then escapes to the atmosphere and decays to 210Pb. Precipitation carries 210 Pb to the Earth surface, where it adheres to finegrained material and organic components (Van Hoof and Andren 1989; He and Walling 1996). This fallout (atmospherically derived) fraction is termed ‘‘unsupported’’ or ‘‘excess’’ 210Pb (hereafter referred to as 210 Pbexcess). 210Pb also forms within the sediment itself as a product of the decay of the 238U incorporated in mineral grains, and this fraction is termed ‘‘supported’’ 210Pb. We calculated the 210Pbexcess concentrations for the sub-samples by subtracting the 226Ra-supported 210Pb concentrations from the total 210Pb (unsupported and supported) concentrations (Joshi 1987; Appleby and Oldfield 1992).
depth (cm)
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10 ln(Y) = -0.071 * X + 5.277 coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.86
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(sedimentation rate) = 0.43 cm/year
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Fig. 3 137Cs concentration profile in core BS-3. The arrow indicates the 1963 137Cs peak
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Fig. 4
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Pbexcess logarithmic profile in core BS-3
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The calculations of sedimentation rate are based upon the decay constant of 210Pb and the decay and the change of activities of 210Pbexcess with depth (Nittrouer et al. 1979; San Miguel et al. 2001). The activity of 210Pbexcess in a layer at depth z (cm), A(z) (Bq/kg), is expressed as: AðzÞ ¼ Að0Þ EXPðk ðz=xÞÞ
xðsedimentation rateÞ ¼ 0:43cm=year
Based on the sedimentation rate (0.43 cm/year) calculated from the 210Pbexcess method, the age of sediments at 19 cm depth can be assigned to 1959 or 1960. The discrepancy of 3–4 years between the 137 Cs and 210Pbexcess methods may be related to the relatively low value of the coefficient of determination (0.86) in the 210Pbexcess method. We interpret the low coefficient of determination to be caused by changes in sediment influx due to variations in precipitation patterns.
ð1Þ
where A(0) (Bq/kg) is the activity of 210Pbexcess in the top layer of the sediment core, k is the 210Pb radioactive decay constant (0.031 year-1), and x is the sedimentation rate (cm/year). The 210Pb logarithmic profile versus depth in core BS-3, using a least squares weighted fit (Fig. 4), gives us the following results: Ln AðzÞ ¼ 0:071 z þ 5:277
Grain-size distribution: the consequences of dam construction Overall, the mean grain size of core BS-3 decreases stepwise upwards, mostly in the range from medium silt- to very fine silt-sized particles (Fig. 5). Sandsized grains are rare. Except for the grain-size, no lithologic variation within core BS-3 is apparent.
ð2Þ
with a coefficient of determination (R2) equal to 0.86. This allows, by comparison with Eq. 1, the determination of the sedimentation rate:
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Fig. 5 Mean grain-size distribution and granulometry (%) of core BS-3 (A: upward-fining trend)
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Interval 1 From 33 to 24 cm depth, the sediments consist mainly of medium silt, with a mean grain size of 6.78 (phi). Interval 2 Between 24 and 2 cm depth, several small changes in the mean grain size from 6.74 to 7.67 (phi) are apparent. Overall mean grain size in this interval is 7.20 (phi). Interval 3 The interval from 2 to 0 cm depth consists of clay with rich amorphous organic matter. The organic matter may originate from either algal or bacterial elements or the decomposition of land and aquatic plants (Schnurrenberger et al. 2003). The mean grain size of this interval is 8.28 (phi). The main phase shift in mean grain size was found at about 24 cm depth, which is the boundary between interval 1 (33–24 cm depth) and interval 2 (24–2 cm depth). Assuming that 19 cm depth corresponds to 1963, 24 cm depth would correspond to about 1945 (Fig. 5). Using the 210Pbexcess method, 24 cm depth corresponds to 1946. Construction of the dam in 1945 may have significantly affected the sedimentation processes in Jinheung Pond. Several studies elsewhere have reported that the building of a dam can cause a fundamental change in the distribution of fine sediment storage in various depositional environments (Wolanski et al. 1996; Andersen et al. 2000; Chen et al. 2001; Rathburn and Wohl 2003; Vericat et al. 2006). As dams tend to trap large quantities of fine sediments being transported from upstream reaches (Vericat et al. 2006), the large distribution of finer sediments in interval 2 (mean grain size 7.20 (phi)) compared to that of interval 1 (mean grain size 6.78 (phi)) can be attributed to the effect of the dam construction.
The most plausible mechanism for these fluctuations is the variation in the annual amount and the intensity of precipitation. An increase or decrease in precipitation potentially causes sediment input to increase or decrease, and consequently, makes sediment grain size larger or smaller, respectively (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya 1996; Rodbell et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2002; Noren et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2005). To separate vegetation effects from the grain size signal, we applied a de-trending method to the raw data. After the de-trending, we computed the fluctuation amplitude of the mean grain size signal (Fig. 6). Based on the instrumental records of daily rainfall in the study area during the past 60 years (Korea Meteorological Administration 2003), the annual amount of precipitation (AP) and the annual summation of the excess precipitation over 50 mm per day
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There are three intervals of sediment with similar mean grain-size distributions.
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Mean grain size fluctuations within Interval 2 30
Within interval 2 (24–2 cm depth), a gradual decrease in mean grain size upwards was observed. We interpret this upward-fining trend (Fig. 5a) to be due to a gradual increase in the density of the vegetation cover in the catchment area, which can impede transport of sediments. Several mean grain size fluctuations are also recognized within interval 2.
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Fig. 6 De-trended curve of mean grain-size distribution within interval 2
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Fig. 7 Instrumentally recorded annual precipitation (Korea Meteorological Administration, 2003), (AP: the annual amount of precipitation, AP50: the annual summation of the excess precipitation over 50 mm per day, h: increased rainfall events, s: decreased rainfall events)
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of the AP and the AP50 may correspond to the changes in grain size distribution. The decreased grain-size peaks at 21, 16, 12, 9 and 4 cm depth can be attributed to the low rainfall recorded in 1949, 1968, 1977, 1982 and 1994–1995, respectively. The grain-size peaks at depths of 22, 20, 10, 8, 5 and 3 cm can be attributed to the increased rainfall recorded in 1948, 1961, 1979, 1984–1985, 1987 and 1997, respectively. Decreased rainfall events in 1951 and 1988, and increased rainfall events in 1958 and 1969, do not correspond with peaks in the grain-size data. This is perhaps
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(AP50) proposed by Kashiwaya (1996) were calculated. The AP represents the amount of annual precipitation, whereas the AP50 represents the intensity of rainfall (Kashiwaya et al. 1986, 1989). Changes in the AP and the AP50 are shown in Fig. 7. In the AP diagram, seven low rainfall events (\950 mm AP) are apparent, occurring in 1949, 1951, 1968, 1977, 1982, 1988 and 1994–1995. In the AP and AP50 diagrams, eight high rainfall events ([1600 mm AP or 250 mm AP50) are shown, in 1948, 1958, 1961, 1969, 1979, 1984–1985, 1987 and 1997. These fluctuations in the instrumental records
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attributable to sediment erosion or depositional hiatuses, but there is no sedimentary evidence or written records to support these explanations. Nevertheless, the age-depth curve for core BS-3 based on these estimated ages shows a nearly linear trend, which suggests that the age determination from grainsize peaks is not seriously in error (Fig. 8).
surface 2003 (1 cm) rainfall (+) 1997 (3 cm) rainfall (-) 1994 (4 cm)
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Cs 1963 (19 cm)
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rainfall (+) 1961 (20 cm) rainfall (-) 1949 (21 cm)
20 rainfall (+) 1948 (22 cm) dam construction 1945 (24 cm)
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Fig. 8 Age-depth curve for core BS-3, (?): increased rainfall events, (-): decreased rainfall events Fig. 9 Schematic diagrams showing the sediment transportation in natural and dammed lakes/ponds
Because the grain-size analysis of lake and pond sediments provides relatively simple, economical, rapid, and detailed proxy data, the idea that changes in mean grain-size record climate (precipitation) signals has been widely accepted (Campbell 1998). Many researchers have shown that a coarser mean grain size reflects heavier and increased amounts of rainfall in various settings (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya 1996; Rodbell et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2002;
condition of natural lake or pond
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Noren et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2005). Campbell (1998) proposed that the mechanism for this response is as follows: inflow carries coarse and fine particles together at the time of heavy rainfall, while outflow removes the fine sediments from the water column. Consequently, the coarse fraction is deposited at the bottom of the pond. In this study, however, the increased mean grainsize peaks are not well defined in the plot of mean grain-size distribution (Fig. 5). We attributed this to the dam construction in 1945. In the case of natural, undammed lakes and ponds, outflow discharge removes the fine-grained sediments. In dammed lakes, however, the dam traps all coarse sediment as well as a significant portion of the fine sediment transported from upstream (Vericat et al. 2006). The Jinheung Pond dam has weakened the power of the outflow stream, and hence fine sediments are not efficiently removed from the pond. As a result, a mixture of fine and coarse fractions is deposited on the pond bottom, and the mean grain size is reduced significantly. At times of decreased rainfall, the supply of coarse sediments is also reduced, so the mean grain size is reduced even more (Fig. 9). As sediment loss is minimized in dammed lakes and ponds, we expect that the sedimentation rate would be higher and that organic matter or heavy metal pollutants, which tend to adhere to fine sediments, would concentrate more and possibly act as secondary pollution sources.
Conclusions A notable feature in core BS-3 is an abrupt shift in the mean grain size between interval 1 and 2, corresponding to around 1945. We interpret this as an effect of dam construction at that time. Within interval 2 (from 1945 to 2003), the sediment has recorded clear precipitation signals. Correspondence between the grain-size distribution at depth and fluctuations of instrumentally recorded precipitation suggests that grain size is directly related with precipitation in the region. An undammed lake or pond functions as a coarse sediment trap, whereas a dammed lake or pond functions as a trap for fine as well as coarse sediment. In particular, the dam prevents fine sediments from being efficiently swept from the pond. Consequently, low mean grain-size
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values at the time of decreased rainfall are more prominent. The results of this study show that the sediments of dammed lakes and ponds are well suited for high-resolution paleoenvironmental investigations, especially studies of precipitation changes over time. Acknowledgments We thank Dr. Kue-Young Kim, Dr. JinKwan Kim and Mr. Min-Seok Kim of the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) for their assistance in laboratory work. We also thank the Journal of Paleolimnology Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Mark Brenner, and two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the original manuscript. This research was supported by the Basic Research Project of KIGAM funded by the Ministry of Knowledge Economy of Korea.
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