An Analysis of the Himalayan Environment and Guidelines for its Management and Ecologically Sustainabh Development AFROZ AHMAD J. S. RAWAT and S. C. RAI*
G.B. Pant Institute,
Paryavaran Bhavan, Kosi-263643, Almora, U.P., India
Summary The impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical and socio-economic environment of the Himalayas are analysed. The main man-induced activities which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of Himalayan mountain ecosystems are stated as: unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, major engineering activities, over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (short cycle) in north-east India, tourism and recreation. Monoculture in forests, erosion and landslides have resulted in one-third of the total Himalayan land area becoming environmentally derelict. Cold desert conditions prevail in 41,500 km of north-west Himalayas and are encouraged by traditional pasturalism. The geo-morphological conditions are major factors responsible for landslides which cause major havoc every year in the area. Other physical problems exist, such as eutrophication, drying up of the natural springs, the recession of the glaciers and changes in surface and ground water hydrology. Wild fauna, like musk deer (Moschus mischiferus) and the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), are now under threat partially due to changes in their habitat ant{ the introduction of exotic plant species. * Drs Abroad and Rawat are scientists, and Dr Ral is a research associate, at the Government of India, Ministry o f
Environment and Forests, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development. Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Afroz Ahmad.
Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
Population pressure and migration are major factors responsible for poverty in the hills. The emigration of the working male population has resulted in the involvement of women as a major work-force. This work includes trekking for hours to collect fodder, timber and drinking water in addition to household duties. Guidelines, with special emphasis on the application of environmental impact assessments f o r the management of the Himalayas, are proposed.
Introduction High mountain areas are a major sub--division of the biosphere, covering about a quarter of the land surface of the globe. In ancient Hindu mythology a mountain is the centre of the universe and the axis of the world. The mythical golden mountain, Mount Meru, is the abode of the Gods and the Himalayas are its foothills. It extends down into the nether regions of the Earth and into the heavens. On Mount Meru the Hindu scriptures state, "there are rivers of sweet water running, and beautiful golden houses in which live the spiritual beings, the Deva" (UNESCO, 1988). About 10 percent of the world's population actually lives in mountainous areas, while around 40 percent, or more, depends upon mountain resources, for fuel, fodder, timber, energy, water, agriculture, minerals, or for recreation. Man is an important factor for creating change in most of the world"s mountain ecosystems. For centuries highlanders have lived
281
Table 1 Himalayan land resources (after Dewan and Sharma, 1985). Name of land reso~ce region
Area (km2)
Percentage of land resource azea (India)
Himalayan Mo~,~n Area
NorthernHimalayasnow-cladregion NorthernHimalayaalpinegrass and meadowregion NorthernHimalayaforestregion North-EasternHimalayaalpine grass and me~_d_owregion
116,000
3.6
98,250 131,750
3.0 4.1
North-Eastern Forest Region
16,000 161,000
0.5 5.0
Total
523,000
16.1
Assam Valleyregion Rajas&anDesertregion
101,250 200,000 145,500 88,500 191,000
3.1 6.2 4_5 2.5 5.9
Total
726,250
22.3
1,249,250
38.4
Himalayan SedimentArea Punjab-Haryana alluvial plain region Upper Gangefic alluvial plain region Lower Gangetic alluvial plain region
Grand total of Himalayan region
in partnership and equilibrium with nature, creating some of the planet's most harmonious landscapes. Today, however, from the Alps to the 76 °
~68 ° I
t
84 °
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76 ~
84 ~
92~E
Fig.1 The Himalayan Mountains in India.
282
Andes, the pressure of population growth and movement, coupled with the new demands of development, are placing this equilibrium in jeopardy. Mountain ecosystems are usually sensitive to quite small disturbances and the consequences of this disturbance are often irreversible. This is especially true of tropical N high mountains, where great relief and steep 36o slopes combine with contrasts in climate, soil and vegetation cover. Damage to natural ecosystems and to the beauty and ecological diversity of mountains are of wide international and human concern. The UNESCO Man and the Biosphere • 28 ° Programme selects, out of its 14 projects, project six, entitled "Impact of human activities on mountain and tundra ecosystems", for the management and sustainable development of mountain ecosystems. The Man and the Biosphere 20o regional meeting held at Kathmandu, in 1975, emphasised that the major problems in the southern Asian mountain region were the land, the people and the economy. The Indian Himalayas, with widths varying •12 o from 250 to 300 km, extend for about 2,500 km from west to east and cover an area of i8 o 52,300 km 2 representing 16 percent of the total ~N a r e a of the country (Fig.l). The Himalayan sediment area, that is the area which is directly fed by the Himalayan rivers, and which forms the Indo-Gangetic and Brahrnaputra plains, extends The Environmentalist
Level
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Appearance of the environmental damage
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Economic social
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world
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smoke damage area
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Fig.2 Variouslevels of environmentalproblems. over 726,000 km 2. Therefore Himalayan regions in total constitute 1,249,000 km 2, or 38 percent of the total land resources of India (Table 1). The Himalayas have been sub-divided into three main regions, namely: (a) Western Himalayas: includes Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh (H.P.). (b) Central Himalayas: includes Garhwal and Kumaon Division of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) (eight hill districts). (c) North-Eastern Himalayas: includes Assam, M e g h a l a y a , A r u n a c h a l Pradesh (A.P.), S i k k i m , N o r t h B e n g a l , M a n i p u r and Mizoram. About 300 million people live in the Himalayas and its foothills. Forests cover 53.2 Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
percent. Starting from about 300 m altitude, 92 peaks rise to over 8,000 m above sea level. The major northern Indian rivers originate in the Himalayas. The natural resources of soil, water (snow), vegetation, minerals, energy sources and terrain are inter-related and changes affecting one have repercussions on others. The Himalayas are geologically young, uplifted about 60 to 70 million years ago. The environment is fragile and sensitive to quite small disturbances. The extremes of climate, topography, relief, aspect and slope are some of the natural factors beyond human control. Degradation of mountain ecosystems is a global problem and the Himalayas face serious environmental problems induced by human activities. 283
PHYSlCALENVIRONMENTCOMPONENTS,,, I
~1
L SOIL IMPOVERISHMENT I AND LOSSES (3) j
1[ WATER RESOURCES (3) ]
• Major engineering activities • Monoculture in mixed forests • Shifting cultivation (with shortcycle) • Unmanaged terraces • Inappropriate farming practices • Deforestation • Erosion • Overgrazing • Desertification
• Eutrophication • Change in river course • Diminished perennial water sources due to change in surface and ground water hydrology and denudation of broad leaved plant species • Sedimentationldebds fall • Flash floods
ATMOSPHERE: QUALITY I AND MICROCLIMATE(1) ]
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• Change in vegetation cover • Grassland abandonment
LANDSCAPES TRANSFORMATION (3)
COMPONENTS
VEGETATION (3) Deforestation Fuel - Timber - Fodder Overgrazing on natural grassland Expansion of agricultural land (shifting and cultivation) Major engineering works -
Deforestation High degree of relief and over use of mountain slopes Loss of grassland arrested succession
• Deforestation • Dams and reservoir construction • Setting of industry in environmentally sensitive areas
AVALANCHES (1)
LANDS,LIDE ( 3 ) I
I ..........
BIOLOGICAL
]
Large scale engineering works viz mining, quarrying, dams, reservoirs, highways, hydroelectric plants etc.
I
(3) • Deforestation • Dams and reservoirs construction • Hydro-electric projects • Highways • Introduction of exotic species • Poaching • Changes in habitat
LEGEND • = Factors responsible for impacts I, 2 and 3 Numbers indicate degree of impact on different components 3= Major impact 2= Medium impact 1= Minor impact
RECESSION OF GLACIERS (2)
SOClO-ECONOMIC
/
DRUDGERYOFTHE I WOMENS'WO~ (3) J
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• Tourist influx • Hazardous growth and adhoc planning • Poor hygienic conditions
I HEALTH PROBLEMS (2) [ • • • •
Population and migration Malnutrition Water pollution Poor hygienic conditions
FAMINE OF FUEL J AND FODDER (3) ,
• • • •
Pressure Immigration Emmigration Settlements
Fig3 The impact of human activities on Himalayanmountainecosystems. 284
The Environmentalist
.I
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,
,,,,, ~
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HIMALAYAS
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I,GROWTHOFPOPULATIONI I NOALTERNATIVES [EX~AND,NG ,NCREAS,NGDEMANDOF1 FOR / CROPLAND [ I ,,,FUE'WOODa OTHERS / CAPITAL OCCURRENCE I . TraditionalGrazingsystemt --~ GROWING [ i CULTIVATION~ t DEFORESTATIONI • MoreWaterResources Ll VESTOCKS • ImprovedVeterinary Services • LessAnimalLosses
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" Desertification in Himalayas means extension of desert like conditions having very low biological productivity and over all situation beyond the limit set by ecological conditions.
"-I SHORTAGEOFGRAZING I 1
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~['" DESTRUCTION I OF VEGETATIONCOVERS I
Fig.4 Factorsresponsiblefor the spread of deserts in the Himalayas. Analysis of Himalayan Environmental Problems The relationships between man and nature are very complex. Environmental problems may occur at cell level, with, for example, physiological cell destruction, or global level with activities such as nuclear war or meteorological changes influencing the environment. All may be directly associated with human activities related with socio--economic development (Fig.2). Man's impact on Himalayan mountain ecosystems is producing critical situations at a faster rate than on most other types of ecosystem. Man-induced activities in the Himalayas, such as unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing of natural grassland, major engineering activities (road construction, mining; dams, reservoirs, irrigation canals, quarrying, hydroelectric projects, etc.), over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (mainly in eastern India) are some of the factors which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of the mountain ecosystems.
Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
Himalayan environmental problems have been analysed by making an extensive survey of the region. They may be divided into: physical environment, biological and socio-economic components. The main factors responsible for the impacts and the degree of impact on different components have been shown in Fig.3.
Physical Environment Components (a) Soil impoverishment and losses. About one-third of the land in the Himalayas may be considered environmentally 'derelict land' due to poor land maintenance practices, altered agricultural practices, and over-intensive land use. Besides this 'derelict land', many remaining lands are highly susceptible to erosion and landslides. The other factors responsible for deterioration of the soil properties are short--cycle shifting cultivation, monoculture in place of mixed forests, ruthless destruction of the native plant species, and overgrazing. The soils in vast areas of the Himalayas are now nutrient deficient and may ultimately result in desertification. Traditional pasttiralism is one of the major factors in the spread of
285
Fig.5 Desertificationin the Himalayasresultingin xerophyticconditions:Opuntiagrowthnear the Kosi river bank. (Photo: Afroz Ahmad).
Fig.6 The establishmentof industries in the environmentallysensitiveHimalayas- a major factor contributing to air pollution. (Photo: Afroz Abroad).
Fig.7 Damaged vegetation around magnesite factory at
Jldroli, central Himalayas.(Photo: AfrozAhmad).
286
desertification (Fig.4). In the Himalayan regions, the herds are privately owned but the pasture land is common property. Therefore the private livestock holder has little interest in adapting (reducing) the number of his livestock to the pasture capacity because he would be economically inferior to other stock-holders. This tradition of grazing has reduced the quality and quantity of the fodder; it interrupts natural regeneration of plants, decreases the productivity of the fields (carrying capacity, pasture capacity), and finally results in deterioration of the soil (Fig.5). It has been reported (Anon., 1989) that in the n o a h - w e s t e r n Himalayas, mainly in the Laddakh region, where cold desert conditions prevail, 41,692 km 2 or 19.5 percent of the area is moderately to strongly vulnerable to the various processes of desertification. Major engineering activities such as those resulting from dams, reservoirs and mining have also caused soil losses and impoverishment in the Himalayas. (b) Atmosphere: quality and micro-climatic changes. In general, atmospheric pollution is not of serious concern in the Himalayas. However, due to the siting of industries in environmentally sensitive areas without any environmental management plan atmospheric pollution is of increasing proportions. Electronic industries in the central Himalayas are, for instance, using chloro-fluoro carbons (CFCs). Certain industries like cement, and n o n - m e t a l l i c mineral exploitation, like that of magnesite, have generated high levels of smoke pollution and toxic emissions ffig.6). This has often caused loss of forest cover in surrounding areas (Fig.7). Micro-climatic changes due to the clear felling of native plant species and the construction of dams and reservoirs in the fragiIe Himalayan region also occur. Changes in micro-climatic conditions have been reported as a result of the construction of the Saryu canal (Afroz and Singh, 1987) and the Gandak canal (Afroz, 1988) in the ectonal zone of the Himalayas. The construction of Tehri Dam, in Garhwal, also produced a local micro--climate. (c) Landscape transformation and landslides. Beautiful scenic landscapes have been transformed due to l a r g e - s c a l e engineering activities in certain environmentally sensitive areas. Deforestation and continuing use of the mountain slopes have resulted in landslides, very evident in the north-western Himalayas (Fig.8). This landslide problem is of serious concern over the entire Himalayan region for it disrupts
The Environmentalist
LANDSLIDE ZONATION MAP OF NORTHWEST HIMALAYA
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VERY HIGH TO SEVERE/CRITICALLY VULNERABLE Fig.8 M a p showing landslide zonation in the north-western Himalayas.
Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
287
Fig.9 Landslide into the River Kosi and disruption of communications. (Photo: Afroz Abroad).
Fig.10 RelzeatingPindari Glacier,central Himalayas, India. (Photo: Bisht). c o m m u n i c a t i o n every year (Fig.9). The construction of highways without following EIA procedures is one of the main factors responsible for the landslides. (d) Recession of glaciers. Due to climate changes continued recession of the Himalayan snowline has been noticed. Glaciers, like the Pindari in the Central Himalayas, which are a major source of water for drinking, irrigation and rivers, are now in recession (Fig.10). (e) Impact on water resources. Shrinking water bodies and their eutrophication have been noticed over the entire Himalayan region. The Loktak Lake of Manipur;, Khichipur Lake in Sikkim; Bhimtal, Nainital, Naukuchiatal and Sattal Lakes in the Kumaon hills of the Central Himalayas;
288
Wooler Lakes in Kashmir; Ooty Lake in Tamil Nadu are examples (Afroz, I989). Changes in river course and flash floods, due to the poor vegetation cover and low infiltration rates, modify perennial water resources and change surface and ground w a t e r hydrology to create problems throughout the Himalayas. The natural springs are drying up due to drastic disturbances in the aquifer partially affected by indiscriminate lopping of native broad leaved tree species like oak (Quercus spp) and Alnus spp. These changes in the mountain areas have had effects downstream, especially in the low land plains. Annual floods cause great damage and the rate of sedimentation is increased, in particular, during and immediately after, the monsoon season. There is also an increased chance of the rivers, which are used for irrigation, drying-up in the months without rainfall.
Biological Components (a) Impact on vegetation. The Himalayan ecosystems, with high biological diversity and rich genetic resources, are more fragile, because they have a low intrinsic resilience. Continued human interference has resulted in the partial collapse of the systems. Exotic weed invasions are typical and the large scale transformation of landscapes with chirpine (Pinus spp) plantations has resulted in changes in soil physico-chemical and biological properties. Clear-felling in the Himalayas has resulted in poor recycling of nutrients. The forest ecosystem often fails to recover to its original state and finally desertiflcation may result as in the entire West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya in the
The Environmentalist
Table 2a Classification of forest area in the Himalayas by States (in thousands of ha). State
Coniferous including associated oaks
Assam 5 Haryana 2 Himachal Pradesh 785 Jammu and Kashmir 2,086 Nagaland 26 Punjab 13 Sikkim 24 Uttar Pradesh 1,253 West Bengal 9 Anmaehal Pradesh 420
Other hill forest area including bamboo
Total
NA
NA
NA 1,369+11 15+3 187+76 NA 258 2,000 134 4,604+130
NA 2,165 2,104 289 NA 282 3,253 143 5,154
N A = Not available
Table 2b Classification of forest area in the hill regions of Uttar Pradesh, Himalayas. Of the total area only 2,403,000 ha is managed by the Forest Department, 626,500 ha by the Civil Forest, 207,100 ha by Panehayat and 16,500 under private ownership. (Source: The L/v/rig H/ma/ayas, New Delhi). Type of forest
Total forest area 0an z)
Above snowline 0,450 m) 4,989" Managed forest 18,637 $al 2,836 Chir 4,018 Deodar with Kali and Cypress 359 ) Fir, Spruce 827 ) 8,040 Oaks 4,297 )
species includingplantation Not underregular management
8.905
Total
32,531
Percentage of area under Forest Department 21.2 11.9 16.9 1.5 3.4 17.0
Other
6,300
28.1
"Panchayat" is the local name for a peoples' committee at village level. * 1,533 km2 or 6.4 percent is under alpine pastures.
japonica are an important factor in the reduction of the native forest cover. They also reported that forested area with over 60 percent crown cover in the central Himalayas accounts for only 4.4 percent of the geographical area due to such factors. The settled agriculture, the shifting cultivation (mainly in the north-cast Himalayas), expansion of agricultural land due to population pressures, forest exploitation for fuel, fodder and timber, and other major engineering activities like dam and hydro--electric projects, are also responsible for the decline in forest cover. The forest cover in the Himalayas by States is shown in Table 2. Excessive deforestation and overuse of the mountain slopes has caused massive erosion, landslides, decreasing agricultural-yields and increasing poverty, linked to a deteriorating biological, physical and socio-economic environment. Furthermore, ecological problems experienced in the high mountains have serious repercussions on the environment in the valleys and lowland areas. (b) Impact on fauna. The Himalayas were very rich in wild fauna two decades ago. Species like the musk deer (Moschus mischiferus), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), and black Himalayan bear (Selenactos himalayanus) are now under threat due to changes in their habitat, and the introduction of exotic species. The construction of roads, dams, reservoirs, and mining hydro--electric projects, together with illegal poaching, have also had an impact. Fish have been affected especially in the high altitude lakes. Brown trout (Saline trutta fario), in the lakes and streams of Jammu and Kashmir, H.P., U.P. and A. Pradesh, and the mahseer (Tor putitora) have reduced in numbers mainly due to the construction of dams and reservoirs which have caused obstruction in their migratory routes and changes in their breeding places. Afroz et al. (1989a) reported that habitat destruction is a major factor responsible for the decline of wildlife populations.
Socio-Economic Components north-eastern Himalayas, in Laddakh of the western Himalayas and in several parts of Kumaon and Garhwal in central Himalayas. Singh et al. (1984) reported that the replacement of original forests by the fast growing exotic species as Eucalyptus spp, Pinus spp, and Cryptomeria
Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
(a) Population and poverty. Population and poverty are linked together in the Himalayan mountains. The population of both humans and livestock is increasing alarmingly over the entire area. The natural resources on which the whole population exists are, however, limited (Table 3). The rise in population has now exceeded the
289
Table 3 Land availability in relation to human and livestock populations in the Himalayas. (Source: The L/v/rig H/ma/ayas, 1983, New Delhi). State
Area (mha)
Land Forest used ( m h a ) (mha)
Pasturesand grazing land (mha)
Net area sown (mha)
Human population (million)
Density population per ha
Jammu art Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Uttar Pradesh (Hill) West Bengal (Hill) Assam Meghalaya Anmachal Mizoram Manipur Tripura Nagaland
22.2 5.6 7.4 0.7 7.9 2.2 8.4 2.1 2.2 1.I 1.7
4.5 5.1 1.4 0.4 7.8 2.3 5.6 2.1 2.2 1.0 1.6
2.8 2.8 1.2 0.2 2.I 0.7 5.2 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.3
0.13 1.20 0.02 0.23 0.05 HA 0.01 HA 0.03 HA
0.60 0.56 4.29 0.4 2.34 0.16 0.12 0.67 0.14 0.24 0.10
4.6 3_5 4.4 3.5 14.9 1.0 0.5 HA 1.I 1.5 0.5
NA 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.01 HA 0.05 0.15 0.03
Total
61.5
34.0
17.8
0.67
6.75
35.5
0.67
NA = Not available
carrying capacity of available habitable land. It has led to overstocking of grazing land and need for new agricultural land and pastures. Consequently, forested upper slopes, which hitherto protected the slopes from excessive erosion, are being cleared for cultivation, fodder and grazing. Emigration of the young and physically fit members of the population, leaving behind the old and least fit, tends to result in adequate land maintenance practices. Emigration is one of the conspicuous characteristics of the Himalayan region and it plays a major role in the environmental degradation, especially the further extension of 'derelict land'. This emigration of the hill people occurs in four ways, namely: temporary seasonal migration, juvenile migration, periodic migration and permanent emigration. Temporary seasonal migration: occurs mainly during the non-peak agricultural periods. The migrants include milkman, forest labourers, pandas and Bhootias (tribes) who dominate the high Himalayas and who migrate towards the greater Himalayas during the summer and towards the lower tarai during the winter. Juvenile migration: generally, boys below 14 years in age migrate under the guidance of senior villagers and relatives leave to find employment in homes and hotels in the towns. Periodic migration: includes the emigration of persons employed in the Government and private services (army, police, and other defence 290
services). Permanent emigration: emigration to lowland urban areas has exacerbated the problems of uncontrolled urban growth and the environmental imbalances in the Himalayas. Emigration mainly involves the rural population between 15 and 40 years, as illustrated in U.P. Himalayas (Table 4). (b) Tourism and recreation. Tourist influx, its growth, and ad hoc planning of tourist activities in environmentally sensitive areas of the Himalayas have created problems. The tourists do not follow regulations when camping. They use firewood for heating and food preparation with inherent fire dangers. The unused materials, like Table 4 Emigration of the rural population by age-groups, Uttar Pradesh Himalayas, 1972. (Sources: Census of India, 1971; Kumar, 1983). Age groups
Total number (thousands)
Percentage of total population
0-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40--49 50-59 60 and above
2.5 23.4 38.5 28.1 33.5 9.4 5.1 NA
1.8 16.4 27.0 19.7 24.9 6.6 3.6 NA
Total emigrants = 142,000 NA = Not available
The Environmentalist
Table 5 Percentage of female work-force to total female population. (Source: Khanka, 1988).
Region
196l
1971 (percent)
1981
Aimora Pithoragarh Kumaon Region Uttar Pradesh India
62.8 63.7 50.8 18.1 27,9
29.9 32.0 21.6 6.7 11.9
46.4 45.4 34.7 9.6 20.8
Table 6 Female cultivators as a percentage of the total female work-force. (Source: Census of India, 1961-1981, based on sample village dam).
Ecologicalzone 1961
1971 (percent)
1981
High Himalaya 89.5 Middle Himalaya 96.3 Siwaliks 97.6
89.2 94.9 87.4
NA NA NA
NA = Not available
plastic containers and glass bottles, are left behind without any care for the environment once scenic hill stations are converted into 'slums' by lack of planned growth to meet the tourist industry needs. (c) Health problems. Serious health problems are e v i d e n t due to malnutrition, p o o r hygienic conditions and migration from the mountains to the lowland urban areas. Tuberculosis is prevalent in the Central Himalayas. It affects women more than men because of their major involvement as the work-force and their low consumption of protein. Migration imposes serious pressures on the housing, health and other amenities in the urban areas. The migrant population arriving in the humid low altitude areas from the Himalayas are particularly susceptible to parasitic, bacterial and viral infections against which they have no natural immunity. (d) Special difficulties for women. The emigration of the male population has increased the intensity of the workload on the Himalayan women. Besides household duties as collecting. wood for fuel, drinking water and fodder; child care, cooking, cleaning and washing, they are also involved in agricultural activities (except ploughing). Shortages of fuel and fodder compels the women to trek for long distances to fetch water, timber for fuelwood (Fig.ll) and fodder for animals. Tables 5 and 6 s h o w i n g the percentage of the female work-force to the total
Volume 10, Number 4 (1990)
female population, and female cultivators as a percentage of the total female work-force in Kumaon, Central Himalayas, clearly indicate the involvement of women in agriculture. Guidelines for Planning and M a n a g e m e n t of Natural Resources in the Himalayas
Management of the natural resources in the Himalayan area is urgently needed to check further degradation a n d to meet the growing demands of the population inhabiting the region. Environmental management should view natural and cultural landscapes as an integrated and interacting series of hydrological, climatological, geological, pedological, biological and cultural-technical systems. To solve the many environmental problems and to achieve the task of ecologically sustainable development, the implementation of the following strategies is urgently recommended.
Management of the physical environment (a) Watersheds and water resources. - Before undertaking a watershed management programme a detailed knowledge about the area, its soil characteristics and land use, etc. m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d . F o r e v e r y w a t e r catchment area a people's committee should be formed comprising representatives from every village which is in the catchment area. - Water b o d i e s and t h e i r f o r m a t i o n and modification should be considered at three ecosystemic levels; for the whole catchment area, for individual lakes and for major critical ecosystems within the lakes. - Efforts should be made to decrease run-off, and to i n c r e a s e i n f i l t r a t i o n and d e e p percolation. These features may be achieved by the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c h e c k d a m s , by plantation on slopes and the use of sub-surface drains and by land improvement with terraces (Fig.12). - An agroforestry programme is urgently needed to support watershed management and to meet the growing demand for fuel and fodder. It should provide maximum bio-mass production per unit area as rapidly as possible and be established on the banks of terraces, canals, l a k e s , d r a i n s , etc. T r e e s u s e d in this programme should be those which will enrich the soil with nitrogen. The programme would help to provide sufficient fuelwood and thus conserve the 300 to 400 tonnes of manure which are burnt by each family as fuel rather
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than used as fertiliser. The trees will also provide shelterbelts, supporting local m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , and i m p r o v i n g the soil structure. - The main tree species suitable for agroforestry in the Himalayas which are useful for fodder, fuel and timber purposes include: Albizzia lebbeck Fraxinus spp, Populus spp, Quercus spp and Leucaena leucocephala. The main grasses used in association with such trees include: Arundinella nepalensis, Dichanthium
annulatum and Phalaris tuberosa. Springs earl be rejuvenated and better utilised by arranging pipe systems to reduce the loss of water in distribution. Quercus incana (oak) and Alnus nepalensis plantations for water management in the catchment area should be encouraged. Rainwater from roofs should be collected. Surface run--off loss may be prevented by using iron or cement tanks or plastic-lined earth tanks. - Hand pumps should be installed for drinking water, drawing this water from the upper part of the catchments or microcatchments, in order to m e e t the g r o w i n g d e m a n d s of rural population. - Intermittent seasonal rivers and streams should be obvious sites for constructing dams to enable the monsoon rains to be used for irrigation and water supply purposes. -
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Fig.12 Managed terraces for increasing water infiltration, minimising soil erosion and ensuring sustainable agriculture, central Himalayas. (Photo: Afroz Abroad).
(b) Land A classification programme of land capability s h o u l d be l a u n c h e d i m m e d i a t e l y . The classification should assess the degree of p r e s e n t d e g r a d a t i o n so that p r o p e r management strategies can be considered. Degraded soils or areas of land should be rehabilitated for the most appropriate purposes (like agriculture, forestry, horticulture or amenities). - Steep land surfaces should be bench terraced and planted. Suitable plant species on such slopes should be contour planted (Fig.13). Gully erosion (Fig. 14) should be controlled by check dams and plantations on the gully banks. Surface r u n - o f f should be controlled by embankments. Land which has deteriorated as a result of shifting cultivation (mainly in north-east H i m a l a y a s ) m a y be c o n t r o l l e d by the cultivation of perennial red gram (Cajanus cajan) along with Calapagonium mucunoids, a
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Fig.13 Slope stabilisation by planling grasses, Erogrostis curvula, Puraria hirsuta, Pennisetum clandesitnum in highly degraded mined land through the assistance of people participation in Central Himalaya. (Photo: Afroz AhmaffL
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Fig.14 Deep gully erosion formed in Recent deposits due to the accelerated surface run-off on denuded up hills, central Himalayas. (Photo: Afroz Abroad).
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fast growing leguminous creeper which fixes nitrogen in the soil, improves soil fertility by leaf-fall and provides extra food for the people. This also suppresses weeds and grasses. - Measures to control erosion should include: improving arable farming techniques by better tillage, contour, wing and strip cultivation, crop rotation and mulching. Special plantation programmes should be launched to provide wind breaks, grass and hedge strips parallel to the contours, and covering crops. Contour furrows and ditches, terraces, discharge ditches and dams, and retaining wails and netting should be more extensively constructed and used. Soil surfaces could be chemically i m p r o v e d to p r e v e n t erosion and g u l l y formation. Plantations besides protecting soil from further degradation would also provide fodder, fuel and thatching material for the rural populations.
Biological management
maintain soil fertility, the water cycle, and to prevent devastating impacts of pests and diseases. All marginal lands should be included in plantation cover programmes. Where Pinus spp plantations are dominant, uncontrolled forest fires induced by villagers cause pine needles to be lost. They should instead be collected for putting in cattle yards for making the animals warm during the winter season (Fig.17). Subsequently, after four to six months, this material may be used as manure. - Local village people, including women and school children (Fig. 18) should be encouraged to support all forest plantation activities through Shhram Dan (labour donation). They should be advised in plantation support and protection techniques. - The practice of villagers promoting fires to encourage new herbivorous growth should be stopped. It tends to weaken the grasses, it assists erosion and frequently the fires spread uncontrolled into nearby forests. Rotational grazing should be more widely adopted and cattle and goat stocks controlled. - Plantations of broad leaf plant species should be encouraged. These play an important role in maintaining the water balance in ecosystems and landscapes. -
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(a) Forests. The planning stages in forest resource management are illustrated in Fig.15. Particular improvement processes should include: - Afforestation of denuded river catchments, gully banks and derelict land areas. - Programmes of afforestation supported by large-scale Government assistance, e.g. aerial seeding in different types of topography. - Acceptance that the natural regeneration of the vegetation cover in the Himalayas can be excellent and, therefore, the impact of human activities should be checked (Fig. 16). In particular, the high mountain forests of the Himalayas should be preserved because they play an important role in increasing the precipitation. - Tree species should be selected, according to their adaptability to the soils and climate of an area. Some desirable features are: rapid early growth, adequate height, longevity, dense crown, wind firmness, and valuable wood products. A single species usually does not possess all these properties; therefore two or more species together are frequently required to achieve adequate protection. - The introduction of indigenous species should be encouraged by replacing exotic species such as Eucalyptus, Poplars, Acacia, Cryptomeria spp, Leucaena spp etc., wherever possible. - Monocultures should be avoided in order to -
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(b) Suitable plant species. Certain plant species may be listed as being particularly suitable for meeting the needs and environments of the Himalayan region. For use as fodder the following species are advocated: Grewia optiva, Artocarpus lakoocha,
Terminalia bilerica, Terminalia tomentosa, Ficus roxburghii, Ficus palmata, Ficus glomerata, Boehmeria rugulosa, Diploknema butyraceae, Bauhinia variegata, Bauhinia purpurea, Quercus incana, Symplocos chinesis, Celtis australis, Aegle marmelose, Pyrus pashia, Rhododendron arboreum, Morus alba. For fuelwood: Grewia appositifolia, Quercus spp, Cocculus laurifolius, Xylossma longifolium, Pittosporum ericarpum, Pittosporum floribundum, Kydia calycina, Ilex dipyrena, Acacia eburnea, Acer villasum, lndigofera heterantha, Comus capitata, Euphorbia royleana, Lantana camara, Boerhmeria viminea, Salix elegans. In moist gullies: Alnus nepalensis, Alnus nitida, Ulmus waUichiana, Populus ciliata, Salix spp.
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STRUCTURE OF TASKS IN FOREST RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ,
,,
,,
co. o.
(ANALYSIS~)
I
(ANALYSlIS)
[
STOCKTAKING
I
STOC~~VALU~T,O. ION
PLANNING OF TASKS IN FOREST RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Fig.15
Structure of tasks in forest resources management.
Associated with waterways: Cynodon dactylon, Cynodon plectostachyum, Brachiaria mutica, Panicum repens, Paspalum notatum, Chloris gagana, Dichanthium annulatum. For check dams regions: Arundo donax, Napier, Jatropha curcas, Agave americana, Impomoea carnea, Vitex negundo. For rivers and stream banks: Arundo donax and Pennisetum purpureum grasses. On slopes: Cymbopogon martinii and Lemon grass. On fine screes, where the rocks are of schist or phyllite: Pinus wallichiana and Cedrus deodara.
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On bare rock surfaces and screes, or on quartzite: Rhl~ and Cappari$ shrubs. On terraces: Saccharum munja, Vetevaria zizanioides. (c) Wildlife. The following points should be given due consideration to assist in the following protection and management of wildlife in t h e Himalayas: - The c o n s e r v a t i o n status of all species concerned should be carefully analysed. - Habitats should be evaluated to determine their carrying capacities. - Exotic species (weeds, shrubs, etc.) and pests should be controlled with the help of the
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participation of the local people. - Rare and endangered species such as the wild buffalo, swamp deer, Kashmir stag, musk deer, the snow leopard should be protected. Game breeding farms should be set up and local people should be involved in both these and the c a p t i v e b r e e d i n g of rare and endangered species. Further biosphere reserve/protected areas should be formed. The Government of India has already identified 13 biosphere reserves, out of w h i c h s e v e n have a l r e a d y been established. Cottage industries should be developed based on wildlife products, through the agency of tribal cooperatives. Species from overstocked areas should be transferred to understocked areas. Regular monitoring/management should be undertaken of all sanctuaries and National Parks in the region. - Tourism should be controlled and its negative consequences reduced. Centres should be established in the National Parks to educate visitors about environmental protection and management. T h e r e should be a census of the more uncommon species, such as the leopard, bear, wolf, thar, hyaena, ratel, gibbon, pheasants, falcons, eagles, etc. -
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Fig.16 Natural regeneration of mixed pine (P/nus roxburghii) and oak (Quercus spp) trees in open forests by checking human and livestock pressures: This forest was denuded ruthlessly during the period 1960 to 1965 for the
Star Paper Mill. (Photo: Afroz Alunad).
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Socio-Economic Components (a) Population and poverty Population-resource ratio studies should be u n d e r t a k e n u r g e n t l y to d e t e r m i n e the appropriate population 'carrying capacity' of the land for its different uses. The population fertility rate should be controlled, this may be partially achieved by improving the position of the women in their society. Small-scale industries should be established. These will help to check the outflow of the male working population and should utilise all available human skills in the areas. - Agroforestry and other cottage industries such as dairying, fruit, pig and poultry farming, gumlac, paper pulp, fibre, wildlife products, herbal drugs, cut flowers, etc. should be p r o m o t e d . This will p r o v i d e gainful employment to the rural people and will raise their economic status. (b) Health - Broad-based policies should be adopted which -
Fig.17 Women bringing pine (Pinus roxburghii) needles gathered for use in cattleyards to warm livestock with a final use as manure. (Photo: Afroz Abroad).
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Fig.18 Children involved in raising nursery plants. Training them for environmental management from childhood. (Photo: Afroz Ahmad).
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achieve both sustainable development and bring down the population growth rates. Primary Health Centres should be opened at all population centres throughout the Himalayas. Health education, immunisation campaigns, and family planning services should be launched throughout the Himalayas with the involvement of the Government and voluntary agencies like the Red Cross Society of India. - Local health guides and medical stores should be provided for each village (depending on population size), so that people from small far-flung villages do not have to trek long distances to get simple remedial measures from the health guide. - The work performed by the multipurpose health workers appointed by the Government should be monitored so as to obtain better health services for the villagers. (e) The special position of women Women can become sustainable developers. Local women should be more extensively trained through the expansion of the present health, nutrition, childcare, and environmental hygiene programmes and extension of the P a r y a v a r a n Vigyan Parsikshan Kendras (Environmental Science Training Centre) provision. Women should be trained for plantation, p r o t e c t i o n and m a n a g e m e n t of natural resources, mushroom cultivation, craft work, nurseries, honey collection, fruit preservation, cultivation of herbs and medicinal plants, sewing, sericulture and rabbitry. This training will enhance the self-reliance and confidence of the women, and since they act as the first educators of their children it will assist in e s t a b l i s h i n g an essential e n v i r o n m e n t a l work-force. - To reduce the burden on women who walk several k i l o m e t r e s every day to collect drinking water, and fuel and fodder, improved supplies of drinking water, irrigation and sources of firewood are essential. - Women should be consulted on all planning matters, since they are the major work-force in the Himalayas. - Environmental education should be introduced into, and run throughout, the other disciplines of the formal education curriculum at all levels. It should c o v e r the problems of o v e r c r o w d i n g and e x c e s s i v e population densities and outline ways to improved health, lower fertility, and better nutrition, and the -
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importance of greater literacy, and social and civic responsibility. Such education will enhance the rural and urban societies' ability to inhabit the Himalayan region, to overcome poverty, to increase income, to improve their health and nutrition, reduce family sizes, and control livestock populations. - Women should be trained to sing a selection of songs in the regional/local language on environmental management and protection, thus creating awareness amongst others. The United Nations E n v i r o n m e n t Programme (UNEP) has already promoted this idea by providing the "Global 500 Honour Roll" for the best song on the environment. This idea provided much publicity and media coverage and p r o v e d v a l u a b l e in t a k i n g the environmental message to new audiences. Ms Ully Sigar, winner of the Award, is recorded as stating, "People who never think seriously about forests and nature start to care - the songs reach their, spirit". Media coverage concerning environmental issues should be given more prominence in both the newspapers and on television. The most important role of the media should be to expose its audience to a debate on a particular issue. This frequently results in new thinking. - Model training programmes to develop and build on women's skills should be devised. - T h e Mahila Mandal Dal (Women's Society) in villages should be extended to improve women's skills and increase their personal income (through activities like wool spinning). Information should be better disseminated by more closely linking the different village organisations (such as, farmers' clubs, the women's society, rural schools, NGOs, etc. (d) Tourism. The impact of tourism on the environment has to be considered alongside the possible improvements to agriculture, livestock production, forest management, as well as health facilities and the communication and transportation systems. A detailed environmental impact assessment should be carried out before opening up an area for tourism. (e) Energy. Energy requirements in the Himalayan hills can be fulfilled through the following strategies: - Small-scale hydro-electric projects in place of single big projects: correspondingly small dams in the place of a big dam. - Wind and solar energy should be harnessed. Devices for using such energy should be made -
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easily available to the rural as well as the urban populations for the former are wholly dependent upon the forests. - Biogas plants are very feasible during the summer season as a better utilisation of cattle dung, in place of its direct burning as a fuel which increases atmospheric pollution and health risks. - Liquefied petroleum gas connections should be provided to the rural and urban populations on a reduced cost basis depending upon economic status. - Use of smokeless stoves should be encouraged. (f) Pasture management. Pasture use can be improved and intensified by adopting the following measuresin an integrated manner: - Available pasture land should be split into lots as a precondition for rotational grazing, for temporary protection of the vegetation and better growth, and for storing fodder for the dry seasons. Protective shelterbelts or hedges should be planted for the pastures. - Measures for soil and water preservation, such as the establishment of sufficient watering places to reduce the wanderings of livestock (from fodder to watering place and back), should be implemented. This would increase the effective production level of animals as well as avoid extreme densities of animals in the vicinity of watering places. Pasture farming should be diversified with crop farming. - If adequate water resources are available nearby, or rain water can be better collected, irrigation of pastures during the dry period should be intensified. Suitable grasses and leguminous plants should be seeded to support the original grass cover. Fodder (hay, silage) should be more extensively conserved in the rainy season to provide additional foodstuff for the dry season. - Certain technical and administrative measures are a d v o c a t e d , such as, p r e p a r i n g and implementing pasture plans which specify rest periods for the pasture during which no grazing can take place so that the vegetation can recover, introducing a more uniform distribution of animals over the pastures (increasing the number of watering places by constructing wells or water supply tanks, fencing grazing areas, adopting rotational grazing, and determining the optimum number of livestock for each pasture. Improved social measures include: the settlement of the
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semi-nomadic population, construction of new villages, and improving the qualifications and knowledge of the people in techniques of modem grazing management. Much Himalayan livestock appears to be in a deteriorating state of health and no data are available to quantify the condition of the livestock. Improvements in the health of the nomadic/semi-nomadic livestock deserves due attention. These may be achie~'ed by initiating measures to improve veterinary hygienic parameters, water-supply, tick surveys, the control of parasites, analyses of the fodder plants in the territory, vaccinations and other prophylactic treatments, isolation of stables or ranches by fences and more elaborate control programmes for the maintenance of the stock. Application Assessments
of Environmental
Impact
(EIAs)
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are now urgently needed to help to eliminate the negative environmental impacts and to ensure ecologically sustainable development in the Himalayas. The important points which deserve due consideration in the application of EIAs are that: - the environmental consequences (positive and negative) of developmental activities should be considered at an early stage. E I A s should be applied to p o l i c i e s , programmes and projects at all levels of government, and - close links should be established between EIAs and decision makers. The most frequently used techniques for environmental impact assessment include: Registering the essential parameters for EIA. This is usually achieved by checklists in the form of a matrix. Such a matrix represents an impact table that lists a set of possible project actions (major engineering activities, etc.) down the side of the table and a set of potentially impacted indicators (e.g. water and soil qualities, air pollution, biota, etc.) across the top. Quantitative assessment of environmental impact. The quantitative assessment of environmental impacts may be made by giving a scale of range numbers and weights to the environmental effects. Any socio-economic developmental activities (Fig.3) must also be assessed. Standard approaches such as that of the Leopold Matrix or other quantitative estimation techniques may be
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used to determine likely changes in 'environmental quality'. Prediction of environmental effects. Besides estimating changes in environmental quality, it is also necessary to estimate the rates of change. Of equal, or perhaps greater importance, is the degree of irreversibility of any environmental effects. An EIA should contain three main subsections relating to environmental effects: determination for the initial stage; estimate of the future state 'without action'; and estimate of future state 'with action'. Environmental effects and their rates of change can be applied to different factors, such as, soil, water, air, biota, etc., and to a wide range of areas of human concern, such as, economic and occupational status, social pattern or life style, social amenities and relationships, psychological features, physical amenities (intellectual, cultural, aesthetic and sensual), health, personal security, religion and traditional beliefs, technology, culture and political, legal and aesthetic concerns. Afroz (1989b) developed EIA models for the assessment of water resource projects in the Himalayas mainly related to the construction of dams, reservoirs, and irrigation canals. Steps in the detailed assessment process for natural resources are shown in Fig.19. EIAs should be applied for all socio-economic developmental activities in the Himalayas to enable better management of the natural resources and to ensure ecologically sustainable development. Acknowledgements The authors are indebted to Ms Sarita Kumari and Dr D S Rawat for the typing and cartographic work, respectively.
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References Afroz, A. and Singh, P.P. 1987. Environmental impact analysis of Saryu Canal Irrigation Project and guidelines for its management. Environmental Management, 24(4), 297-313. Afroz, A. 1988. Environmental impact evaluationof Gandak Canal IrrigationProject of eastern U.P., India and guidelinesfor its management. Int.J. Environmental Studies,32, 137-149. Afroz, A. 1989. Eutrophicationwith specialreferenceto Himalayas and strategies for its rehabilitation. In: Agrawal, V.P., Desai, B.N. and Abidi, $.A.H. (eds), Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, pp.363-399. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. Afroz, A., Ramakrislman, P.S. and Rao, K.S. 1989a. Management and conservation of wildlife: Environmentalism' view points. In: Singh, P.R., Sharma, O.P. and Booj~, R. (eds), Environmental Conservation and Development, pp.81-90. Directorate of Environment, U.P. Afroz, A., Ramakrislman, P.S. and Rao, K.S. 1989b. Environmental impact assessment of water resources projects in Himalayas: An urgent need for sustainable development. In: Singh, P.R., Sharma, O.P. and Boojh, R. (eds), Environmental Conservation and Development, pp.91-102. Directorate of Environment, U.P. Anon. 1989. Parameters for determining ecological fragility in the country. Report of the Working Group Constituted by Govt. of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, March. Dewan, M.L. and Sharma, S. 1985. People participation in Himalayan ecosystems re-development. Centre for Policy Research, 56 pp. New Delhi, India. Khanka, S.S. 1988. Demographic prof'de of Kumaon. In: Valdiya, K.S. (ed), Kumaon Land and People, pp. 137-159. Gyanodaya Publication, Nainital, U.P. Kumar, K. 1983. Population structure of the U. P. Himalayas. In: Singh, O.P. (ed), The Himalaya: Nature, Man and Culture, pp. 138-140. Rajesh Publication, New Delhi. Singh, J.S., Pandey, U. and "l~wari, A.K. 1984. Man and Forests: A Central Himalayan ease study. Ambio, 13(2), 80-87. UNESCO, 1988. Man Belongs to the Earth: International Cooperation in Environmental Research, 175 pp. Man and Biosphere Publication.
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