COMMENTARIES

ON DISEASES

OF THE KIDNEYS."

PAar II. By A~THUR WYN~E FOOT~ M.D., Univ. Dubl. ; Senior Physician, Meath Hospital and County of D u b l i n I n f i r m a r y ; Fellow and Ex-censor, K i n g and Queen's College of Physicians in I r e l a n d ; Diplomate in State Medicine, T r i n i t y College, D u b l i n ; Lecturer on Practice of Medicine in the Ledwich School of Medicine and S u r g e r y ; Fellow, Royal Geological Society of Ireland, &c.

[Continued from page 280, Vol. LXVII.]. PROPHYLAXIS OF RENAL CALcuLI.--Congestlon of the kidneys, active and passive. Toxic agents which provoke acute renal hypermmia--characters of the urine in-Treatment of active renal hypermmia. Passive or venous congestion--a condition secondary to other lesions. Symptoms of passive renal hyper~emia--characters of the urine. Treatment of passive congestion of the kidney. Parenchymatous nephritis its synonymous terms--causes. Acute parenchymatous nephritis after scarlatina--different from the febrile albuminuria in the acme of the disease. Diphtheritic nephritis analogous to scarlatinal~supposed to be due to emboli of bacteria. Acute nephritis from "catching cold "--more severe and prolonged than from other causes. Symptoms of acute nephritis--characters of the urine iu same. WE have already alluded to the treatment of the symptoms arising from the passage of renal calculi. There is another object to be kept in view in the treatment of nephrolithiasis--namely, to prevent the formation of renal sand and gravel, and in this consists the prophylaxis of renal calculi. To carry out this indication, it is of the first importance to regulate the diet properly. The great prevalence of this disease among elderly persons in the higher ranks of life, who indulge in a quiet, sluggish method of living, subsisting chiefly on a meat diet, would go to prove that bodily inactivity, together with a rich nitrogenous diet, constitutes at least one factor in the etiology of u r i n a r y calculi. I t seems to have been proved beyond possibility of doubt that there is an increased excretion of uric acid when the amount of animal food consumed is augmented, yet an a b u n d a n t consumption of nitrogenised food often does no harm when there is a corresponding consumption of the material of the body, such as takes place when the mode of life is active, and especially when much bodily exercise in the open air is taken. I t is sufficient, then, to prohibit too excessive a use of meat, to recommend the a The text of the essays of Professor Carl Barrels, of Kiel, and Professor Wilhelm :Ebstein, of Goettingcn, in Volume i V . of the "Cyclopaedia of the Practice of Medicine," edited by Dr. It. Von Ziemssen, has been followed as closely as possible, with additional notes from all the best authorities on the subject.--A. W. FooT.

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use of white meaty and to insist particularly on great moderation in eatingy and on the use of the most digestible articles of food. A n exclusively milk and vegetable diet may be recommended for persons in whom~ in consequence of luxurious living, the excess of uric acid is very considerable. Butter and sugary and all fluids containing sugary should he avoided. Pure spirit and water is the best form of stimulant ; the weak spirit and sugar of half fermented beer and effervescing wine more easily undergoes acid fermentation than fully fermented wi~e and pure spirit. A simple therapeutic measure, but one of the greatest importance~ is the abundant use of soft spring water night and morning; it is the best diluent of the uriney it diminishes the.irritation of the kidneys and the urinary passagesy delays the precipitation of the uric ~cid, retains the solid matters in general of the urine in selutiony and enables the constantly forming precipitates to be more easily washed out of the kidneys and the renal pelves. Alkaline mineral watery such as u or Seltzer watery may be substituted for spring watery and taken not only with the food, but two hours before each meal. Some consider the waters that contain Glauber's s a l t s h i n the first rank of which must be placed those of Carlsbad and Tarasp--p0ssess a marked superiority over the pure soda watersy and act more certainly and reliably. Alkaliesy he,revery must not be given in such large quantities as to give the urine an alkaline reaction. I f this should occury a precipitation of the earthy phosphates from the urine within the urinary passages will unavoidably take place. I n this way phosphatic concretions are formed, or incrustations of phosphates are deposited upon other varieties of calculi. W a r m baths are to be used as aids to other treatment. Keeping the bowels open was recommended by Sydenhamy who took a cathartic (manna and lemonjuice) upon a fixed day in every week for several months in succession, and found it always give him relief. Among the special agents which are considered to possess salient powers over uric acid are lithiay which exceeds all other bases in its power of dissolving uric acid, and phosphate of soday which can dissolve more uric acid than most other salts. Congestion of the Kidneys.--Congestion of the kidneys is an increase in the amount of blood in the vessels whiehy if sufficiently intense~ gives rise to the passage of albumen~ bloody and even fibrinous casts of the uriniferous tubules into the urine. I n the kidneyyas in other organsy we must distinguish between activeorpassivecongestionyregardlng the former as the introductory stage of infiammationy the latter as the result of some mechanical hindrance to the escape of blood. Active congestion or acute hyper~emia of the kidneys is produced by undue determination of blood to these organs~ and when it occurs apart from being the anatomical commencement of a parenchymatous inflammationy we find it is a condition which arises almost solely as the result of some toxic influence. Cantharides is about the best known of those poisonous substances whieh~ after being absorbed into the system~

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finally provoke hyper~emia of the kidneys~and whether it be administered internally, or applied externally in the form of a blister, or as an ointment to keep up a discharge, acute symptoms of renal hypermmia have been observed to follow its employment. Very large mustard plasters, when these have been applied to an extensive surface of skin~ are known to exert an action upon the kidneys altogether similar to that produced by cantharides. In such cases the effect is no doubt produced by the irritant principle, whether of Spanish fly or of ethereal oil of mustard seed, being actually carried to the kidneys in combination with the blood. Besides the oil of mustard, the oil of turpentine is the only other volatile oil which is of any practical importance in regard to the production of renal hyperremia ; this it produces both when absorbed through the digestive canal~ and when inhaled in the form of vapour, if only enough of it gain access into the system. Cubebs and copaiba may be included among the irritants which can induce renal congestion of an acute kind. The anatomical changes produced in the kidneys by cantharides, oil of mustard, and oil of turpentine are but little known, since but few opportunities are afforded of studying them in the dead body. The only thing that may safely be taken for granted is that both kidneys will be equally affected. A t the post mortem examination in cases of poisoning with cantharides~ the most characteristic lesion found is the frequently excessive cystitis~ a circumstance which has led many to believe that the kidneys themselves were not principally affected by this poison. After death by cantharides, the urinary organs are not the only ones which show signs of inflammation ; there is always evidence of inflammatory action throughout the digestive apparatus. Setting aside the action of renal irritants, active renal hyper~emia may arise from excessive filling of the vascular system~ as after abundant drinks ; from hypertrophy of the left ventricle ; from the use of diuretics; from compression of the abdominal aorta below the renal arteries; also from obstruction to the circulation in the capillaries of the skin from exposure to cold. In all these cases the hypera~mia chiefly affects the arterial supply of the Malpighian bodies. The chief symptom is an increased secretion of urine; the urine is more dilute, paler, and of diminished specific gravity. If the blood pressure in the Malpighian bodies becomes still greater, the urine is albuminous or even bloody. The symptoms of renal hyperremia provoked by the irritants before mentioned set in only after a certain period of time has elapsed, and consist at first in a constant and urgent desire to pass water~ although no notable increase in the quantity passed may be observed. The urine excreted is in many instancs found to be very bloody, and more or less albuminous; it generally has a few casts in it. After he use of cantharides it occasionally happens that the urine contains such an enormous quantity of fibrin that if it happen to coagulate within the bladder the resulting clot is large enough

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to prevent micturition. The spontaneous excretion of fibrinous coagula is especially characteristic of the action of cantharides~ and the formation of transparent jelly-like masses in the vessel containing the urine may lead to the discovery of the clandestine employment of cantharides. Dropsy is not a symptom proper to renal congestion; when present it depends on other causes, commonly on lung or heart disease. Mere hypereemia of the kidneys does not produce a fatal issue, although its persistence may induce permanent alterations in the tissues of the organs, and thus lead to an ultimately fatal result. One of the most important consequences of long-continued renal hyper~emia appears to be an excessive production or overgrowth of the interstitial connective tissue, which eventually passes on to contraction and atrophy. The treatment of simple hypel~mia of the kidney is, in the first instance, directed to the removal of or abstention from the noxious agent which excited it ; and after this the most efficient means of combating active renal congestion are complete rest of the body in bed, cupping the loins, brisk purgatives, the warm bath~ and other diaphoretics ; mucilaginous drinks~ opium, milk and water, and a mild vegetable diet. In congestive hypermmia the result of the injudicious employment of cantharides~ internally or externally~ the administration of camphor in doses of from two to five grains every three or four hours~ has been highly recommended. The passive or venous congestion of the kidney is not a spontaneous independent malady~ but always the result of some serious disturbance of the circulation. As conditions inductive of this congestion there is~ in the first place~ that general stasis of the venous circulation throughout the body which is produced by valvular lesions of the heart and by certain affections of the lungs ; and in the second place, such obstructions as exercise compression upon the vena cava ascendens above the entrance of the renal veins~ or even upon these veins themselves. Foremost in frequency~ as illustrations of the former class of cases, are obstructive valvular lesions at tile mitral orifice, and such lung diseases (as emphysema and certain forms of interstitial pneumonia) as lead to extensive obliteration of capillaries in the pulmonary parenchyma. Illustrative of the latter class are those cases in which a gravid uterus or other tumour presses upon the emulgent veins or the upper course of the inferior cava. Sometimes a cirrhotic liver compresses the latter vein as it lies in the hepatic fossa. I t is only the higher grades of general venous stasis which exert any appreciable effect upon the kidneys and their functions, and these higher grades of general venous congestion are most commonly produced by heart diseases. I n describing the symptoms associated with congestive (venous) hypermmia of the kidneys it is not possible to exclude some that are produced by the fundamental malady from those that pertain to the functional disorders of the kidneys. These symptoms consist~ on the one hand~ iu

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a general overfilling of the veins, advancing even to well-established cyanosis ; and, on the other, in diminished fulness throughout the entire arterial system--an emptiness sufficient to render the radial pulse small and feeble, and, in extreme cases, even imperceptible. The symptoms, in short, are those of extreme elevation in the tension throughout the venous system, with a corresponding diminution of tension throughout the arterial system. Attention is usually not directed to the renal functions until the heart defect has existed for some time, until cyanosis of the face indicates accumulation of venous blood in the peripheral veins, until dyspncea on exertion, and orthopnoea distress the affected individual, and then dropsy, beginning with anasarca of the lower extremities, leads to a urinary examination. In such a case one finds that the quantity of urinary water excreted daily falls far below the normal average. This scanty urine is usually of a dark, brownish-red colour, and, although clear when first passed, quickly becomes thick, through an abundant deposit of urates ; its ordinary reaction is strongly acid, its specific gravity high, reaching to 1030 or t035. The urine, as might be inferred from this high specific gravity, contains a large quantity of solid constituents, among which the urea occupies the first place. The urine in heart disease, too, as a rule, is much richer in uric acid than that furnished by healthy individuals under ordinary conditions, both in percentage and in absolute quantity. This depends not upon the condition of the kidney, bnt upon the influence which the disturbance of the respiratory functions in heart disease exerts upon the tissue-interchanges and the products issuing from these. As soon as dropsy has set in, the urine constantly becomes albuminous, but the quantity of albumen, as a rule, remains small, seldom reaching to two parts per thousand. Coincidently with the appearance of albumen, the sediment presents small, pale, homogeneous casts, although never in large quantity. There is no pain or even any decided tenderness on pressure in the region of the kidneys in venous hyperzemia, and it is in accordance with general experience that ur~emic symptoms are not associated with heart disease unless some complication coexist. These disturbances of the renal functions in persons suffering from heart disease, when once established, may persist without any remission up to the end of life, and death is then usually ushered in by continually advancing dropsy and increasing difficulty of breathing, provided no accidental complication cut the case short. In other examples of heart disease the functional disturbances of the kidneys subside again completely, and often quite suddenly, too, as soon as the patient is removed from unfavourable conditions and subjected to skilful and approprlate treatment. The diminution in quantity of the urine in the venous congestion of the kidney, in heart disease, is simply attributable to the diminution of the arterial tension, for upon the restoration of the natural pressure

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throughout the arterial system, there at once ensues an abundant secretion of urine, and the actual quantity of fluid drained off by the kidneys may be largely in excess of that which has been taken in drink or otherwise ingested with the food. The albuminuria of heart disease is regarded by Bartels as the consequence of the abnormal increase of blood pressure in the renal veins, and he assumes that the albumen does not pass through the capillaries of the ]~alpighian tufts, but is forced through the walls of the intertubular capillaries directly into the urine tubes. The albuminuria comes and goes in heart disease with the appearance and disappearances of the cyanosis, and simultaneously with the depression and elevation of the arterial tension. The non-occurrence of urmmic accidents in the functional renal disorders provoked by venous congestion is due in part to the circumstance that in the passive hypermmia of the kidney the epithelial lining of the urine tubes remains entire and sound~ preserves its normal properties~ and continues to fulfil its function of separating the products of r~itrogerrous waste from the blood ; and that although the quantity of water separated by the ~r tufts is reduced to a minimum~ it still suffices to eliminate the excrementitious urinary constituents from the blood, and to pre~ent any accumulation of them either in this or in the tissues. This is verified by the clinical observation of patients suffering from heart disease~ in whom often very large amounts of the specific urirm constlments are found in small quantities of urine. Again~ in the consideration of this matter---the non-occurrence of ur~emic symptoms in cardiac congestion of the kidney--it is to be remembered that in this last stage of heart disease the tissue interchanges, for evident reasons~ are seriously interfered with, and that consequently only insignificant quantities of excretory material are formed, of which quite a considerable quantity may be lodged in the dropsical effusions, and thus remain outside the blood and lymph vessels. The treatment of passive congestion of the kidney turns upon that of the original malady to which it is secondary. Since in most eases there exists an irreparable fundamental disease--for it is the essential renal complication of mitral valve disease--attention must before all things be directed to the action of the heart. The violence and rapidity of the heart beats~ Which so often interfere with the complete filling of the left ventricle in mitral deficiency, may be subdued with certainty by digitalis. In other cases the feebleness of the heart's action may call for the most powerful stimulants, for under these conditions stimulants become the best diuretics. In cases of chronic cardiac affection with secondary venous hypermmia of the kidneys in which digitalis is indicated, tile neutral potash salts in infusion of digitalis often have a beneficial action. With the view of removing water from the system by the promotion of perspiration, the hot air bath is safe and efficacious, but~ if inapplicable, prolonged hot water baths may be used daily. When the diaphoretic method fails to restrain the dropsy~

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and drastic purgatives are inadvisable or unsuccessful, there remain but mechanical measures for the evacuation of the dropsical effusions. Parenchymatous nephritls.--A large and important class of renal affections are comprised under the head of "parenchymatous nephritis." This term is practically synonymous, among several others, with acute Bright's disease, inflammatory dropsy~ or acute renal dropsy, scarlatinal kidney, acute desquamative nephritis (Johnson), acute tubal nephritis (Dickinson). I t may be stated generally that this inflammatory affection arises from unnatural stimulation of the kidneys. As a consequence of over-work, or of work to which they are not adapted, they take on an abnormal activity ; they become congested, the tubes get choked up with epithelial growth, and the disease is established. The causes~ which are numerous, are thus classified by Dickinson : a 1. Circumstances which throw upon the kidney the work of other glands; cold to the body by checking perspiration; obstructions to the escape of bile; destruction of one kidney by throwing double work on the other (?). 2. Diseases which develop a material which acts as a renal i r r i t a n t - scarlatina, diphtheria, measles~ erysipelas, typhus~ pneumonia, and acute rheumatism. 3. Matters taken from without which act as renal irritants--turpentine, alcohol, cantharides, arsenic, &c. The second of the above categories embraces a number of causes in which certain specific noxious substances are carried by the blood current to the kidneys--substances which irritate these organs, and eventually cause them to become inflamed. Among all the specific causes of acute nephritis scarlatina is the one which is most common. I n childhood it is by far the most frequent cause of the disorder. I t was long before those who in earlier times observed the occurrence of nephritis in connexion with scarlatina became aware that the kidney complication was of specific origin~ and even a~ the present day there are persons who hold the view that the renal inflammation that follows scarlatina is provoked by cold~ to which the skin, rendered more sensitive by the disease, is exposed. I t would appear that in the course of scarlatina, as well as in certain other febrile diseases~ notably diphtheria, morbid products are left in the blood which the kidneys take a share in removing. The kidneys are irritated by the poison which selects them as a mode of exit. I t is the experience o~ all vcho have had ~ large acquaintance with scarlatina that the most severe renal affections may occur in the course of convalescence from scarlatina in cases where the parents have never allowed their children to leave their beds~ while neglected children, who could be said to have passed through their attack of the disease, absolutely in the streets~ running about almost naked in snow and rain, remain a Diseases of the Kidneysl Part II., p. 270.

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entirely free from such sequelae. The view that the kidneys are irritated by a morbid product derives support from the common observation that where the throat suffers severely~ and seems to bear the brunt of the materies morbi, the kidneys are mostly exempt; yet in individual cases it does not seem to be the intensity of the general or local symptoms of the scarlatinal process which determines the occurrence or the absence of the renal affection. This is often absent in cases of the greatest severity, while on the other hand it may lead to a fatal issue after a perfectly mild scarlatinal a t t a c k - - s o mild as not to be noticed as such at the time, or to be suspected prior to the appearance of dropsy. The frequency of nephritis after scarlatina varies remarkably in different epidemics, and seems to be entirely dependent upon the character of the epidemic. A s a general statement nephritis is more common in those epidemics which have been called malignant by reason of the severity of the febrile symptoms and the dangerous complications of all kinds (especially those of a diphtheritic nature) that attend the individual cases. Care must be taken not to mistake the effect of the febrile action in its production of albuminuria for the specific influence of the scarlatina process upon the kidneys. Febrile albuminuria occurs in the severe form of scarlatina~ just as it does in every other form of grave felm'ile disturbanc% but then it coincides with the height of the fever, and subsides with the fall of the temperature. The specific nephritis does not manifest itself in the course of scarlatina until after a period of almost complete remission from all febrile action of from one to two weeks' duration has elapsed and the eruption has quite disappeared. A febrile albuminuria appearing at the height of the exanthem, lasting for a few days, and disappearing again with the subsidence of the fever, does not by any means imply that a nephritis will follow. The albuminuria, which signifies the existence of a renal inflammation, appears at a much later date, and in the majority of cases first shows itself about the twentieth day from the first appearance of the rash. Bartels, however~ has been able to determine the commencement of nephritis as early as upon the tenth day of the searlatinal disease. Some writers have asserted that every case of scarlatina is attended by an affection of the kidneys~ but careful and exact microscopical and chemical examinations of the urine in a really large number of cases of scarlatina show that such is not the ease. I n far the larger proportion of all the eases of scarlatina, albumen~ according to Bartels, never occurs in the urine, and throughout the whole course of the complaint neither renal epithelium nor its fragmentary ddbris are discoverable in the urine. Up to the present all attempts have failed to discover any substanee in the urine after scarlatina that in its transit through the kidney, like a poisonous irritant diuretic, could act as the provoker of the inflammation. I t is quite unlikely that the pathological changes which take place in the skin in scarlet fever can of themselves

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be the cause of the renal inflammation. F a r graver alterations of the skin following a no less acute or febrile course occur in continent smallpox without being usually followed by nephritis. When renal inflammation follows a skin affection, like an extensive burn, for instance, the nephritis is provoked at the height of the malady, not after the subsidence of the pathological process in the skin, as is the case after scarlet fever. Diphtheria also, like scarlatina, entails acute inflammation of the kidneys, but also, like scarlatina, does not excite a renal affection in every instance. The severity also of the renal affection stands in no direct relation to the extent of mucous membrane involved in the diphtheritic process, or to tile intensity of t.he general disease. Oertel has undertaken to show that the special cause of the diphtheritic nephritis is the penetration of micrococci int~ the kidneys, and their multiplication within these organs ; yet other most competent observers have failed to confirm the views of Oertel as to tire production of the diphtheritic nephritis by emboli composed of bacteria. Among the first class of the causes of acute nephritis given above we find included the comprehensive group of causes which is comprised in the phrase "catching cold." Although catching cold must frequently be offered as an etiological scapegoat, its importance as a cause of inflammation of the kidneys cannot be doubted. The illustrations of its action offered by Bartels are typical and of frequent occurrence. One patient got drunk after spending a winter night in dancing, threw himself, halfundressed, on his bed by an open window, and went to sleep. When he woke up his limbs were stiff with cold. F r o m that hour he felt s i c k - - a few weeks later his whole body was dropsical, and his urine was strongly stained with blood. Another patient, while perspiring freely from severe work, left his smithy, and went into the open air, with no covering on his shoulders except a shirt, and~ while cooling a piece of red-hot iron in water, allowed himself to be wet through with an icy rain. Two weeks later he was brought into hospital, suffering from dropsy and hmmaturia. A third, immediately before his illness set in, broke through the ice while skating, and only succeeded in extricating himself from his cold bath after prolonged exertions. Whatever views may be held as to the way in which infammatory affections are caused by exposure to cold, there is one point in which they all agree, and that is, that the violent contraction of the cutaneous vessels produced by extreme cooling of the skin must drive the blood into the internal parts of the body, and consequently lead to elevation of the blood-pressure in the vessels of the internal organs. The inflammation of the kidneys and of other organs consecutive to extensive burns of the surface of the body, is produced in the same way as the inflammation which is due to catching cold. I t is well known that the destruction of the skin produced in this way, when extensive, causes a general depression of the temperature of the body, in consequence of

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the great loss of heat ; it acts in the same way as a continued abstraction of heat by cooling of the uninjured skin. From what has been stated as to its etiology it will be seen that acute nephritis may owe its origin to a great variety of causes ; but, however originating, the anatomical and clinical manifestations of the diseased processes are strikingly similar, and no matter what the cause of individual cases may be, the anatomical changes in the kidneys, and the clinical symptoms, are as liable to be slight as severe. I t is, however, well established that the duration of the acute nephritis which results from severe cold is more prolonged, aud its detrimental influence on the general health is more intense than in the majority of the cases of scarlatinal nephritis. Acute nephritis may be ushered in in one case with symptoms of high fever, attended with alarming retching and vomiting, while in another there may be no fever at all; even in these latter cases extreme anmmia and great loss of strength are noticeable in a very short time. The first effects of renM disturbance are exhibited in diminution or complete suppression of the urine, and in the appearance of albumen and usually also of blood in the fluid. Bartels has observed that with the exception of a few instances of choleraic nephritis, every case of acute parenehymatous nephritis in which complete suppression of the urinary secretion took place terminated fatally, even when small quantities of bloody urine were again passed after prolonged suppression. I n very mild eases, all evidences of the disturbance of the renal functions may disappear in the course of a week or two. Such mild cases of nephritis are not uncommon after scarlatln% are the ordinary rule after diphtheria, and are also frequently met with in connexion with other exciting causes. I n the more severe cases, when the inflammation has caused a more profound Mteration of the condition of the renal vessels, recovery never sets in rapidly, and the affection very often terminates fatally. The nephritis which is due to catching cold, as a rule, presents this more violent type. I n very acute cases death takes place after the patients have become more or less dropsical-usually during ur~emic convulsions~ or in the coma that succeeds them. When a case of acute nephritis follows a slow course, it leads, in the majority of cases to dropsy, which is sometimes slight and sometimes excessive, and which may last for months, subsiding and reappearing at intervMs. The dropsy itself may be the immediate cause of death, either in consequence of excessive accumulation of fluid in the serous cavities of the body~ or by an acute (edema of a large portion of the pulmonary tissue, or, in rare cases, by acute (edema of the submucons tissue of the larynx. However, the great majority of all the cases of acute parenchymatous nephritis terminate in recovery. With regard to the length of time that elapses before the disease terminates in recovery there are

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variations in different cases which evidently depend on the nature of the exciting cause of the renal affection. While a scarlatinal nephritis that lasted two months would be considered exceptionally long, an acute nephritis, due to a severe cold, is apt to be much more protracted, and sometimes continues more than six months. The rarest termination of acute parenehymatous nephritis is its conversion into a chronic renal affection that continues for years. The cases of acute nephritis that originate from cold are the most liable of all to develop into a chronic affection. When nephritis sets in in an acute form the patient may within a few hours beconle ~' ill all over," with shivering and headache. Soon his face becomes puffy~ particularly about the eyes, and oedema spreads quickly over the body. H e has a dull pain or feeling of weight in the loins, and the urine h~s nearly stopped. I f the nephritis be very intense the urine may be reduced to 2 oz. or 3 oz. a day, and that deeply tinged with blood. The pulse is hard and full, the skin hot and dry, the tongue coated, the face flushed, total loss of appetite, great thirst, and perhaps vomiting. The suppression of urine cannot last long. I f the secretion do not speedily increase, the patient will be poisoned by the retained urinary matters, become comatose, and die. I t is exceptional for nephritis to occur in this rapid and active form. I n the majority of cases the disease, though it begins with marked and definite symptoms, runs a slower and longer course. The head symptoms which occur in the more prolonged form of the complaint are usually of a convulsive kind, whereas in the more acute form coma is apt to set in without any such prelude. The epileptic seizures sometimes come on without any premonitory sign, or they may be preceded by pain in the head, drowsiness, or peculiarity of manner. The convulsive seizures may be repeated in quick succession, and then pass off without any further mischief, or they may give place to a condition of incomplete coma, which is apt to end fatally. Continued vomiting appears to act as a forerunner of the convulsive attacks. Much as children are liable to convulsive seizures during the course of other diseases, it appears that in acute nephritis they are less liable to be affected by head symptoms than grown people. Dickinson" remarks that it is worth observing, in connexion with the state of the brain in these attacks, that they almost always occur with dilated pupils, whereas during congestion of the brain the pupils are generally contracted. When the head symptoms take a severe form, the attacks occur in quick succession, sixteen or seventeen sometimes happening within as many hours. The pallor of the countenance will ofteri serve as a ready means of distinguishing head symptoms from this cause. I f the disorder take a favourable turn the urine will increase in quantity in some cases even to twice or thrice the natural amount. The a Diseases of the Kidney. Part II., p. 275.

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dropsy will at the same time subside~ the albumen at length cease to be perceptible, and the patient will be convalescent, though often left in a very anaemic condition. Recovery is often heralded by a most surprising increase in the quantity of u r i n e - - a s many as twelve imperial pints may be passed in the twenty-four hours, earrying away with it not only the dropsy, but a large excess of urea, the result of previous accumulation. The changes which the urine undergoes in acute nephritis concern principally its quantity and its chemical composition. Its quantity suffers a notable diminution in the early and progressive stages, and sometimes a great increase during recovery. The more scanty the urine is. the more intense the disease, and there is no more promising sign in nephritis than a spontaneous increase in the amount of the urine. W h e n the disease occurs in a severe form the urine may be reduced in quantity to between half an ounce and two ounces daily. This is the minimum, and only occurs in cases where the tubes are almost universally stopped up with epithelium or fibrin. The degree of diminution reached in such instances is fortunately rare, since it is a symptom of the worst omen. The chemical composition of the urine in nephritis is affected by the addition of albumen, and sometimes of the crystalloid constituents of blood, and of blood in its entirety, and by the diminution of all the natural urinary components. Albumen is invariably present in abundance. The commeneement of the disorder is generally marked by a decided coagulum of albumen in the u r i n e - - a fact not observed with other forms of renal disease. I t affords by its q~uantity a generally correct measure of the severity of the attack. A diminution in the amount of albumen is as favourable a sign as an increase in the quantity of water. The quantity of albumen discharged may be stated to vary from a trace up to 3h grammes (more than an ounce) of dry albumen in the twdnty-four hours. ~ The means of making an exdct estimate of the daily loss of albumen are both troublesome and tedious. The increase or diminution from day to day may be sufficiently ascertained by the rough method of boiling, acidulating with nitric acid, and measuring with the eye the bulk of the coagulum. This varies from a mere cloudiness, such as is noticed during convalescence, to a bulky clot, which in some cases is large enough to convert the whole quantity of fluid operated upon to a gelatinous or solid mass. Dickinson draws attention to the recognition by means of guaiacum of the crystalloids of blood as among the early signs of the disease--one which may, indeed, precede the appearance of albumen in the urine. A state of urine in which the crystalloids only of the blood are discoverable has been described as a pre-albuminuric stage of albuminuria; and it would seem that at least in some cases the sapphire blue imparted to the urine by its admixture in a test tube with tincture of guaiacum and Dickinson. Op. cir., p. 288.

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ozonic ether declares the presence of those elements of the blood before the less fluent albumen has been able to traverse the coats of the vessels. The following is a convenient way of employing this test : - - A piece of white filtering paperis first wetted with a tincture of gualacum ; on to the wetted portion two or three drops of the suspected urine are then let faU ; and, lastly, a little solution of peroxide of hydrogen, or of the so-called ozonic ether, dropped on to these. A faint or bright blue stain developed at the spot where the urine had fallen will soon indicate the presence of blood2 This reaction (which results from the oxidation, by the peroxide of hydrogen~ of the resin deposited from the tincture in the presence of h~moglobulin), according to Mr. l~/Iahomed~accompanies a general increase of arterial tension, which precedes the local renal inflammation and constitutes a stage of the disease in which it is amenable to preventive, however obstinately at a later epoch it may resist curative, measures. The excretion of urea is diminished as long as the disease is stationary or on the increase. The amount of urea generally varies with the amount of water~ and when the latter is very scanty the urea is proportionately reduced and may fall to a twentieth of the normal amount. This extreme diminution is a symptom of the worst import, and is usually followed by nervous disturbance--generally convulsions. When the urine is allowed to stand in a tall glass cylinder a copious sediment is thrown down, particularly when the complaint is of recent origin. I n the absence of blood the sediment will consist of the contents of the tubes. There will be seen multitudes of cells of renal epithelium, which may be natural or fatty, and in advanced cases a few pus-corpuscles may be detected. Furthermore, there will be casts which may occur in such great abundance as to form by themselves quite a palpable sediment. There will be found, especially in the early periods of the disease, epithelial casts which consist of a cylinder of coagulable matter, studded over with epithelial cells~ which adhere thereto and are partly embedded therein. Sometimes these casts seem to consist entirely of compacted epithelial cells, or of epithelial cells held together by fibrin~ so small in amount as to be barely perceptible. The coagulable material which forms the basis or stroma of a cast is separated from the blood in the renal tubes which act as moulds to the nascent material and impress it with their size and shape. Whatever matters the tubes may contain will become embedded in the stroma as it coagulates. I t is in the course of acute inflammation of the kidneys that the epithelial lining of the renal tubes may be shed or desquamated in their natural continuity, and appear in the urine as epithelial casts. If the epithelium passes off, not in entire cells but broken up, the casts are granular in character--often opaque and coarse. These are as truly epithelial in their structure as those where the cells are seen entire and distinct. The granular casts generally appear in the more advanced a ClinicMl~eports on Renal Diseases. William Carter. 1878, p. 212.

36S

Commentaries on Diseases of the Kidneys.

stages of the disease~ since it is necessary for their production that the epithelium remain in the tubes long enough to become disintegrated. There are also observed in the sediment simply fibrinous casts~ small when from a tube duly lined with epithelium, large when from one which has lost its epithelial growth. During the presence of hmmaturia the casts may contain blood-corpuscles, or may have a brown colour from being tinted with hmmoglobulin.

[To be continued.] _

_

L

REMEDIES

FOR

DILATING

THE

CERVIX

DURING

AND

PREPARATORY

TO LABOUR.

AT a meeting of the Obstetric section of the New York Academy of Medicine, Dr. Sell related a case as an example of several, in which he used the concentrated tincture of caulophyllum, or squaw weed, with the happiest results~ as a remedy to ward off tedious labour. The remedy was especially applicable in those cases in which the woman had habitually suffered severely during the first stage of labour. As a preparatory remedy in such cases it should be administered in twenty-drop doses three times a day, for three or four weeks previous to confinement. Dr. Merrill remarked that he had witnessed similar results from the use of castor oil during labour. He referred to cases in which he had found the os rigid, had ordered a dose of the oil, and, by the time the bowels were freely evacuated, the rigidity had disappeared~ and speedy delivery was effected. He further remarked that he had used castor oil with good effect in cases in which the uterine contractions were weak~ and the os was considerably dilated. Given in half-teaspoonful doses every ten or fifteen minutes~ the oil had produced marked uterine contraction as rapidly as he had ever obtained by the use of ergot. Dr. Sell regarded the oll as a dangerous medicine to be given during the latter months of pregnancy, for if it had the power to excite uterine contraction~ it might produce premature delivery. He also referred to gelsemium as a valuable remedy in cases of rigid os during labour. Dr. Merrill remarked that he never ordered castor oil, except when he was convinced that it was time for labour, or the process had already commenced. He always charged his patients not to take castor oil during the last months of pregnancy, if remedies were needed to keep the bowels open, because of the liability to excite uterine contraction. Dr. F. V. White remarked that when he was an intern in Bellevue Hospital, it was customary to administer castor oil to the lying-in women on Sundays, and there were marked results following its administration. He also asked Dr. Sell if he had not obtained as satisfactory results from the use of chloroform in cases of rigid os during labour as from the use of gelsemium ? Dr. Sell replied that he preferred gelsemium to chIoroform.--N. Y. Med. t~ecord~ Jan. 25, 1879.