17 Higher Education 14 (1985) 17-40 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Printed in the Netherlands

DECLINE IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES

S. O. O D U L E Y E

Department of Biological Sciences, University of llorin, PMB 1515, llorin, Nigeria

ABSTRACT The decline in Nigerian universities has been perceived conservatively by university administrators as a transient "phase of negative growth" entirely attributable to external rather than internal factors. Since a condition of decline has not been apprehended, per se, it has not been possible to take appropriate management policy actions to contain it. The pattern of management of Nigerian universities has remained largely unchanged for more than three decades despite major changes in the environment. While inadequate funding is perceived as the major factor in the present decline, this study highlights those aspects of management which may also have contributed to it - thus suggesting the need for major structural changes in management. Evidence is presented to show that expenditure per student is very low in comparison with British universities and that this will be even more so if corrections are made for the social welfare burdens of Nigerian universities which do not normally form a component of university function. Although the present study is preliminary in nature, a follow-up will focus on strategic management proposals to arrest the present decline.

Introduction

Nigerian universities, like similar institutions world-wide, are at present facing difficult financial conditions. This is likely to last for a while in the light of the low priority given to tertiary education by succeeding Nigerian governments, from whom by far the largest proportion of funding is derived. Societal pressures on universities are also likely to increase and therefore may further accelerate the decline. Despite these difficulties, however, university administrators appear to be largely unprepared for and are making inadequate responses to the patent decline as the pattern of management has remained essentially unchanged since the creation of the first Nigerian university in 1948. The most obvious responses of Nigerian universities to deteriorating conditions have been in three directions: 0018-1560 / 85 / $ 03.30 9 1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

18 (1) increased appeal to government to reduce its pressure on universities to increase student enrolment and at the same time to increase and stabilize financial allocations; (2) attempt to increase internally-generated revenue through a proliferation of consultancy services that utilize the professional expertise of staff; (3) freezing of vacant positions. The major thrust of these responses is consistent with the view that university administrators perceive deteriorating conditions as being totally externally induced and therefore tend to be outward-looking rather than self-examining in their responses (Cameron, 1983). There has been no attempt to examine the structural organization of universities and their management with a view to making them more efficient and cost-effective without compromising the objectives they set out to attain or jeopardizing the career prospects of the staff while still making the university experience stimulating and rewarding to students. The convergence of the responses (referred to above) of almost all the Nigerian universities to the present situation is indicative of conservatism and paucity of innovation in administration. If anything, the responses are anachronistic and retroactive rather than anticipatory. It can be argued that limited as these responses are they could have achieved better results if they were initiatives rather than response to events. While an effective strategy for coping with decline is difficult to develop (Cameron, 1983), the fact that the pattern of management of Nigerian universities has remained largely unchanged for more than three decades, notwithstanding major changes in their environment, suggests a need for a re-examination, if not total re-organization. Structural and strategic changes are more obvious when deteriorating conditions continue for some time (Ford, 1980). The fact that decline has been obvious for the greater part of a decade without any major structural reform supports the present suggestion that there is an absence or inadequacy of appropriate responses. The present study, in many instances, makes direct comparison in certain parameters which are of strategic importance between Nigerian universities on the one hand and British and American universities on the other. Cautious as these comparisons must be, they are subject to a number of criticisms. For example: (1) Despite the universality of the objectives of universities, the social, economic, cultural and political milieu in which they individually operate usually imposes understandable differences in the ways the objectives are approached; (2) Differences in the social, economic, cultural and political milieu are bound to result in differences in unit cost of education although an overall management objective should be to keep costs low without compromising standards; (3) The concept of academic freedom inherent in universities assumes a

19 flexibility in the process of goal attainment without necessarily conforming to set norms. (4) The study relies heavily on data from only two Nigerian universities and forms the basis of extrapolation for the entire university system. This study must therefore remain only of a preliminary nature until more data on Nigerian universities become available for a more incisive study.

Catalysts of Decline In developing strategies for the management of decline, it is instructive to examine critically the factors which, if not causal, are probably instrumental to aggravating it. However, such an analysis faces a major obstacle. A common feature of the Nigerian education system is the absence of reliable statistics. This, according to Taiwo (1980, p. 174) could have been responsible for the wide disparity between projected primary school registration under the Universal Primary Education and the actual registration just two years after the launching of the programme. Also, in a review of the progress made in the Nigerian education industry since the submission of the Ashby Commission Report, Asiwaju (1972) emphasized the difficulty of his historical analysis for the same reason. This situation is applicable even to tertiary education FUNDING PATTERN It is widely held that the cause of "decline" is the fact that the universities have expanded more rapidly than their funding. Other factors are rising inflation and its effect on the cost of goods and services, increasing unreliability of essential services on which normal university function depends and the concomitant pressure on resources in an attempt to make good these deficiencies. Table I shows government recurrent grant to all Nigerian universities between 1975 and 1980. Expressed in U.S.$, a favourable exchange rate (see Appendix l) results in 122 percent increase in funding in this period. However, expressed in constant 1970 U.S.$, this represents an increase of only 13 percent. During the same period student enrolment in all Nigerian universities rose by 98 percent (Federal Republic of Nigeria: presidential commission on salary and conditions of service of university staff, 1981, p. 97). Thus, financial allocations to Nigerian universities appear to be insensitive to inflation and enrolment statistics. Associated with increased enrolment is an increase in the diversity of academic programme and staff population both of which exert pressure on resources. For example, Fig. 1 shows the trend of some growth parameters at Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, between 1970 and 1979. The unfavourable impact of a depressed global economy and inflation on

20 TABLE I Government Recurrent Grant to All Nigerian Universities (1975-1980)

Year

Grant (in millions)

75/76 76/77 77/78 78/79 79/80

(in N)

(in U.S.$)

(in constant 19705)

100.732 137.000 154.000 140.090 200.000

160.6571 217.1157 236.5591 216.1883 356.5062

86.3748 93.9895 89.6057 66.1126 97.6729

Sources: 1. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981).

2. Calculations based on exchange rates to U.S.$ and consumer price index published in 'Statistical Yearbook' of the United Nations. See Appendix 1 for details.

GROWTH

I N ABU ( 1 9 7 0 - 7 9 )

0 0 Z

_o

U) lZ uJ

I<

IW

a. 0 IL lZ W a

O. l&l a

u_

lm Q Z

w 0 <

14. u. lm

70

72

74

76

78

YEAR

Fig. 1. Growth of Ahmadu Bello University(1970-79).

21 GROWTH

30

IN L A N C A S T E R

UNIV,

(1970-79)

=

=

student enrolment

:

=

expenditure(unadjusted)

:

expenditure(adjusted for inflation)

25

@ @ vx 20

J o

/

z ilJ

15

F-

Z

3

w o =

1 0 84

6

~ 70

2 72

74

76

78

YEAR

Fig. 2. G r o w t h in L a n c a s t e r U n i v e r s i t y ( 1 9 7 0 - 7 9 ) .

university funding is not limited to Nigerian universities. Fig. 2 shows the growth of Full Time Equivalent (FTE) student enrolment and total expenditure at Lancaster University between 1970 and 1979. The apparently rapid increase in expenditure during this period translates, on the average, only into a marginal increase when expenditure is expressed in constant 1970 U.S.S. It is obvious from Fig. 2 that, for Lancaster University, there is a widening gap between enrolment and growth of expenditure. Probably more frustrating with regards to strategic budget planning in Nigerian universities is the apparent inconsistency and the absence of a rational criteria for funding. For example, Table II gives a comparison of recurrent expenditure by Ilorin and Lancaster Universities between 1976 and 1980. While there was a consistent growth in expenditure in Lancaster University during this period, that of Ilorin University showed a fluctuating pattern. This pattern is consistent with a similar trend shown in Table I and will therefore be common, individually, to all Nigerian universities. It should be noted that University of Ilorin was established in 1975 and the period under review (1976-1980) must be associated with a consistently rapid student enrolment and staff growth.

22 TABLE II Recurrent Expenditure of Ilorin and Lancaster Universities(1976-1980) Year

Expenditure (in million) in U.S.$

76/77 77/78 78/79 79/80

in constant 1970 U.S.$

Ilorin

Lancaster

Ilorin

Lancaster

12.2979 25.9140 9.1204 12.6203

14.1038 17.6556 22.4065 29.9644

5.3238 9.8159 2.7891 3.4576

6.5599 7.0906 8.2987 9.7923

Notes: 1. Calculations based on exchange rates to U.S.$ and consumer price index. See Appendix 1 for details. 2. Figures for Ilorin are government recurrent grants and may be slightly lower than actual expenditure. Sources: 1. University of Ilorin, 1982. Statutory Senate Report to the Visitation Panel. 2. University Grants Committee: Statistics of Education Vol. 6 (1976-1979).

Of significant interest in this regard is the fact that Nigerian universities depend on a government grant for as much as 90 percent of their recurrent expenditure (see Table III). The excessive dependence on government for funding is also a feature of British Universities (Table III). In contrast, most American universities derive more than 50 percent of their recurrent revenue from tuition and auxiliary enterprises. For example, Fig. 3 shows the income sources of the University of Notre Dame (Indiana, U.S.A.) between 1978 and 1982. TABLE III Income Sources (% of total)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Govt. grants (incl. local authority and others) Student tuition and fees Research grants Sales and services Endowments and gifts Total

Lancaster Univ. (1975/76) a

Average for Britain (1975/76) a

Ilorin Univ. (1979/80) b

80 9 7 2 3 100

76 6 12 3 3 100

91 5 0 4 0 100

a Source: Daniels (1980), Table 16. b Source: University of Ilorin, Estimates, 1980-81.

23 I N C O M E S O U R C E S : Univ. of Notre Dame

14

12

others

10

auxiliary enterprises

L

8

o gifts

E

6 endowment

LU Z UJ

4

L

LU n"

tuitmn

78

79

80

81

82

YEAR

Fig. 3. Income sources of Universityof Notre Dame (1978 82).

Considering not only their educational but also their social welfare roles (discussed below) the inadequacy of the present funding level and pattern in Nigerian universities is summarized in the report of the presidential commission (Cookey Commission Report) on salary and conditions of service of university staff (p. 98) as follows: 154. There is no generally accepted rule for determining the level of aggregate funding to the university system by Government. It is a matter of both economics and politics. However, it is known that in the 1970s resources devoted to university education in countries such as the U.S.A., USSR, West Germany, Brazil and Singapore annually constituted 1-4 percent of their gross national products. In sharp contrast the approved annual allocations to the Nigerian universities during the 1970s and the projected annual allocations during the 1981-85 plan period constitute less than one percent of the country's gross national income. Judged by the experience of other countries, therefore, it could be seen that there is still much greater scope for additional funding to the Nigerian university system than has actually been achieved to date.

Table IV presents a comparison of expenditure per FTE student enrolment in Lancaster and Ilorin Universities between 1976 and 1980. As in the case of

24 TABLE IV Unit Cost of Education at Ilorin and Lancaster Universities(1976-1980) Year

1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80

Expenditure (in millions) (constant 1970 U.S.$)

FTE student enrolment

Unit cost (U.S.$ per FTE)

Ilorin

Lancaster

Ilorin

Lancaster

Ilorin

Lancaster

5.3238 9.8159 2.7891 3.4576

6.5599 7.0906 8.2987 9.7923

1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

4,168 4,432 4,531 4,652

5,324 6,544 1,395 1,383

1,574 1,600 1,832 2,105

Notes: 1. Figures for expenditure at Ilorin are government recurrent grants. Actual expenditure may be slightly higher. 2. The Full Time Equivalent student enrolments for Ilorin are estimates. Actual figures not available but, from personal knowledge,are unlikely to differ markedly from those given in the table. 3. See Table II for sources and Appendix 1 for exchange rates and consumer price index used for computation.

expenditure growth (Table II), a consistent and explicable pattern obvious in Lancaster University is absent in the case of Ilorin. The high unit cost in 1976-1978 at Ilorin could have been associated with high cost of benefit in these formative years of that university if the overall trend was reasonably consistent with this phenomenon. This suggests the absence of any strategic planning at the level of the National Universities Commission (A statutory agency with functions similar to those of the U.K. University Grants Committee). It would have been more informative, if requisite data were available, to compare expenditure per FTE at Lancaster University, for example, with a Nigerian university of similar age (e.g. ABU, Ife University or Lagos University). However, in 1979/80 cost per FTE at ABU was $929 compared with $2,105 for Lancaster in the same year (see below). To bring the cost at ABU to the same level as that of Lancaster for that year would have required a 130 percent increase in funding (i.e. about 30 percent of the funds available to the Nigerian university system). It is unlikely that even this level of funding, if available, will result in an "output" similar to that of Lancaster. This suggeststhat the present conditions of decline in Nigerian universities cannot be explained entirely in terms of inadequate funding. It is proposed that structural deficiencies in management, the excessive and increasing burden of a social welfare role - not normally a university function (see below) - are also major factors.

25 FUNCTIONAL RESOURCE ALLOCATION

Dwindling resources usually force the administration to adjust the pattern of resource allocation although it is often a convenient "tactical" response to apply an across-the-board cut. While the rather sardonic perception of education institutions by Cohen et al., 1972 (quoted by Baron, 1978) as "organized anarchies with unclear and inconsistent goals, a reliance on trial and error methods, and needs that vary from moment to moment in teaching, research and administration" may not be appropriate in the present circumstances, it is instructive to examine the changing pattern of resource allocation in response to decline. A strategic approach to resource allocation during deteriorating conditions is important if the primary objectives of the university are not to be seriously compromised at the expense of less important secondary goals and supportive services. Table V shows the relative apportionment of recurrent revenue between seven expenditure categories for Ilorin University in 1979/80 and, for comparison, for Lancaster University (1975/76) and averages for two groups of Ameri-

TABLE V Functional Allocation of Recurrent Revenue (%) Expenditure catetory

Lancaster Univ. (1975-76) a

Estimate for U.S. Colleges and Univ. (1976-77) (public institutions) b

Ilorin Univ. (1979-80) d,e

Least affluent Most affluent fifthc fifth 1. Teaching and research 2. Academic services 3. General educational expenditure 4. Premises 5. Student amenities and welfare 6. Administration 7. Miscellaneous and others Total

61.5 8.6

61.5 8.7

58.4 9.0

39.8 5.7

2.0 16.2

6.6 9.3

6.2 8.7

2.2 26.3

2.3 6.0 2.9 100

5.8 7.4 0.7 100

7.2 11.0 3.1 100

10.6 12.3 3.1 100

a Source: Daniels (1980), Table 18. b Source: Bowen (1980), Table 18. c See Bowen (1980), p. 132 for definition of institutional affluence. d Source: University of Ilorin (1982). Statutory Senate Report to the Visitation Panel. e See Appendix 2 for the rearrangement of the various expenditure heads used in source to fit the expenditure categories of this table.

26 can public universities (1976/77). The expenditure categories (see Statistics of Education, University Grants Committee, Vol. 6, 1979) are those normally used for similar exercise by the U.K. University Grants Committee, a statutory agency with functions similar to those of the Nigerian National Universities Commission. For ease of comparison, the various expenditure heads for Ilorin have been rearranged to fit the expenditure categories used in the present analysis (see Appendix 2). Although comparative figures are not available, it is unlikely that the pattern of functional allocation by Ilorin University will differ substantially from those of other Nigerian universities, especially since there appears to be a National Universities Commission guideline to all universities on this. If this assumption is valid, it allows broad generalizations to be made on the basis of the Ilorin statistics which will be applicable to the entire university system. While British and American universities spend about 60 percent of their recurrent revenue on teaching and research (the primary function of universities), Nigerian universities spend only about 40 percent (see Table V). It will be noted that while cost per FTE student unit (calculated below) gives a broad perception of unit cost of education, the unit cost of this expenditure category is probably the best indicator of the quality of instruction. The disparity in instruction-related expenditure between Nigerian universities on the one hand and British and American universities on the other becomes even more obvious when expenditure categories 1, 2 and 3 (see Table V) are grouped together. The effect of this on the efficiency and effectiveness of academic function and students' academic welfare is obvious. The imbalance in functional resource allocation between instruction-related expenditure and expenditure on supportive services is due, as will be shown later, to over-establishment and the excessive welfare role in addition to the high cost of goods and services consequent on high inflation. The changing pattern of functional resource allocation at Ilorin between 1976 and 1983 is shown in Table VI. As argued above, this pattern is probably typical of the entire university system. In response to decline, total direct educational expenditure (Table VI, categories 1,2 and 3) decreased slightly from 37.8 percent in 1976/77 to 36.5 percent in 1982/83 while recurrent expenditure on supportive services increased appropriately in the same period. It is obvious therefore that the immediate response to decline has the unwitting effect of reducing the proportion of the revenue allocated to the primary aspects of university function. Thus, primary university functions bear a greater burden of decline compared with supportive functions and the impact of decline becomes far more damaging than would otherwise be necessary. It is desirable to examine some of the factors responsible for the anomalous resource allocation indicated above.

27 TABLE VI Changing Pattern of Recurrent Allocation: Univ. of llorin Academic session

Expenditurecategory 1

1976/77 1977/78 1978/79 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982/83

30.4 25.7 31.4 39.8 33.3 27.9 27.7

2

3

6.5 5.1 5.9 5.7 5.7 5.6 3.8

0.9 0.8 2.3 2.2 2.4 3.7 5.0

4

5

6

37.3 33.4 32.9 26.3 28.0 32.5 32.6

8.9 20.2 12.5 10.6 13.1 14.3 17.8

15.7 14.4 13.6 12.3 13.8 13.1 11.5

7

0.2 0.4 1.3 3.1 3.7 2.9 1.7

Figures are percentage of total recurrent expenditure. Expenditure categories as for Table V. Sources: 1976-1982,Universityof Ilorin (1982). Statutory Senate Report to the Visitation Panel. 1982/83, University of Ilorin, Estimates, 1982/83 (This may differ from actual expenditure).

OVER-ESTABLISHMENT/INADEQUATE TECHNOLOGY As a result of the apparent inability of universities to resist political pressure, the impression is created that there is no limit to the expansion of a university. For example, ABU was established by 1962 and its student enrolment has increased continuously ever since (see Fig. 1). In contrast, Lancaster University enrolled its first set of students in 1964 and its enrolment stabilized at a little oyer 3,000 FTE by 1972. This enrolment is still under 5000. Unplanned, boundless growth, unaccompanied by a synchronization ofenrolment and resources is a major catalyst of decline. Eveti if resource input was not limiting there is, theoretically, a boundary limit beyond which growth can only be achieved in real terms at the expense of unit cost. This hypothesis is compatible with the law of diminishing returns and is illustrated by a demand/cost curve in Fig. 4.: "The point at which the cost curve (CC) intersects the benefit curve (DD) defines the equilibrium position, the amount of expenditure (OE) at which the incremental benefits are equal to the incremental c o s t s . . . Deviation from this point indicates that higher education is overextended (costs exceed benefits) or that it is underdeveloped (benefits exceed costs)" (Bowen, 1980). Most parameters of university growth are closely dependent on student enrolment. These include, for example, academic and administrative infrastructural facilities and recurrent budget. It is therefore safe, for the purpose of the present argument, to equate growth in enrolment with overall university growth. In a hypothetical situation in which financial resource is not a limiting factor for

28 growth, a number of other factors may be limiting; one of these is the level of technology. In the present hypothetical situation, for example, assume a university with an enrolment of, say 1000, and a student catering service with a kitchen equipped with wood-burning cookers. Increase in enrolment to 2000 may require the installation of additional, similar cookers and the employment of additional kitchen staff without a significant change in unit cost or efficiency and effectiveness of catering service provided. Further expansion of the catering service with further increase in enrolment may be inhibited by such factors as space and cost of additional infrastructure. Under this condition, growth can only be achieved at the expense of unit cost and/or efficiency and effectiveness. However, unit cost, efficiency and effectiveness may be maintained with growth by the installation of gas cookers. This situation can be further extrapolated to a point at which only the installation of higher technology cooking devices, such as microwave ovens, can sustain acceptable unit cost, efficiency and effectiveness and may be applicable to other facets of university life such as academic function. In the absence of the technology required to sustain growth, the use of manual labour is a ready alternative. This probably explains the similarity in the trend of student enrolment and total staff population growth at ABU between 1970 and 1979 (see Fig. 1). In the case under reference (Fig. 1), the similarity in the growths of teaching departments and senior staff numbers indicates that labour is substituted for technology at the level of intermediate and junior staff. In this connection it is also noteworthy that senior academic staff constitute 74 percent of all senior staff and all categories of academic staff constitute only 15 percent of total staff population (Table VII), Furthermore, student/academic staff ratio for ABU in 1979/ 80 was approximately 9.0 (computed from Tables 15 and 13, ABU Digest of Statistics, Vol. Two, 1980). Since ABU, like most Nigerian universities, runs predominantly an admixture of three- and four-year degree programmes, this compares favourably with a ratio of 8.9 for Lancaster University and an average of 8.5 for all British Universities in 1976/77 (Daniels, 1980) which run three-year programmes. Thus any degree of over-establishment

TABLE VII Analysis of Staff Cadre: ABU (1979-80 session) Staff cadre

Academic

Technical

Administrative

Total

Senior Intermediate and Junior Total

74.0 0.8 15.3

1!.8 26.1 23.3

14.2 73.1 61.4

2,004 8,074 10,078

Figures are percentage of total staff. Source: ABU Digest of Statistics, Vol. Two.

29 will be within the rank of other staff (administrative and technical) which constitute 85 percent of all staff and particularly the intermediate and junior cadre of this staff category which constitute 80 percent of all staff(see Table VII). Wage costs are high in Nigeria relative to other developing countries and this is a major factor in the current inflationary pressure. It is difficult to ascertain precisely the effect of over-staffing on recurrent expenditure and cost per student unit. However, in 1979/80, staff emoluments accounted for 58 percent of total recurrent expenditure of the University of Ilorin (Table VIII) compared with 41 percent for Lancaster University in 1975/76 (Daniels, 1980). Similar value for American institutions of higher learning in 1974/75 was 69 percent with a student/academic staff ratio of 14.3 in 1977/80 (Bowen, 1980, p. 8; Table 5, p. 42) and four-year degree programmes. It may be argued that even if the suggestion of over-staffing in the more junior supporting staff is valid, the salary of this staff category, despite its numerical strength, constitutes a disproportionately smaller component of total staff salaries. Indeed, junior staff salaries were less than 30 percent of total staff salaries at Ilorin University in 1980. However, any excess staff of whatever category imposes additional, avoidable expenditure - particularly in areas of staff welfare such as housing, medical service, car loan and staff pension funds. This thus results in avoidable increase in cost and/or reduces the funds available for teaching and research while not necessarily increasing efficiency and effectiveness as proposed above. Another consequence of inadequate use of appropriate technology is that routine but specialized tasks which, under ideal conditions, may be delegated to more junior staff, may have to be performed manually by senior management staff at concomitantly increased cost. This, for example, may account for the poor performance of the accounting and financial management services available in most Nigerian universities despite the fact that their finance departments probably have a higher ratio of senior management staffcompared with organiTABLE VIII Summary of Expenditure Estimates: florin University (1979-1983)

Senior staff salaries Junior staff salaries Total emoluments Other recurrent Total

1979/80

1980/81

1981/82

1982/83

41.4 16.7 58.1 41.9 100

31.9 15.1 47.0 53.0 100

31.8 14.2 46.0 54.0 100

35.1 17.4 52.5 47.5 100

Figures are percentage of total expenditure. Source: University of Ilorin, Estimates, 1980/81; 1982/83.

30 TABLE IX Comparison of Diversification of Academic Programme in Some British and Nigerian Universities Subject Group

llorin

Ife

Lagos Ibadan

Zaria

Sussex Warwick York

1. Education 2. Medicine, Dentistry and Health 3. Engineering and Technology 4. Agric., Forestry and Vet. Medicine 5. Science 6. Social, Admin. and Business Studies 7. Architecture and Other professional Vocational courses 8. Lahguage, Literature and Area Studies 9. Arts, other than Languages

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+G

§

+

§

§

+

-

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

+ +

+ +

+

+ +

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

+

+

+

+

-

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

G = Graduate level only + = Course offered - = Course not offered

zations of similar size in the private sector of the e c o n o m y , even in Nigeria. The extent of under-utilization of h u m a n resources in the Nigerian university system as a result of the i n a d e q u a c y of t e c h n o l o g y is not k n o w n but is likely to be quite considerable. This is due to the fact that investments in high-level m a n p o w e r is not m a t c h e d by a similar investment in a p p r o p r i a t e technology; thus, low productivity is the result. It should be noted that in the present context, emphasis is on " a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y " as there are problems of m a i n t e n a n c e of high-level t e c h n o l o g y in developing countries. F u r t h e r m o r e , the substitution of a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y for l a b o u r while checking unnecessary staff g r o w t h m a y not necessarily result in loss of jobs as staff can be retrained in line with the new dispensation. Its political implications notwithstanding, to increase efficiency, a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y must be utilized to perfo.rm essential functions. This is a m a j o r factor in efficient c o m m e r c i a l and industrial activity in the developed countries. I n a d e q u a t e use of a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y would, at least in part, a c c o u n t for the high p r o p o r t i o n of resources allocated to supportive services indicated above. W i t h a F T E student e n r o l m e n t of 13,716 at A B U in 1979/80 ( c o m p u t e d

31 from ABU Digest of Statistics, Vol. Two, Table 5, p. 8) and a government grant of N (m) 26.097 (Cookey Commission Report, 1981, Table 6.2 p. 115) the cost per FTE student for that year would be N1903. This is equivalent to U.S.$3,392/FTE. This value may have been slightly underestimated since the recurrent expenditure will be slightly higher than government subvention due to internally-generated revenue, transfer from capital grant and deficit financing. In comparison, a similar figure for Lancaster University in the same year was ~ $6,441. However, in constant 1970 U.S.$ these figures translate into $929 and $2,105 for ABU and Lancaster respectively. Since higher level students (graduate students, senior undergraduates and undergraduates on professional courses) consume resources more than lower level undergraduates, it is more equitable to compute unit cost in relation to student unit than FTE unit (for definition and computation of student unit see Bowen, 1980, pp. 4-5; p. 265). If this is done, the unit cost computed above will be reduced (for example to $634 per student unit for ABU in 1979/80). The disparity in expenditure per student between ABU and Lancaster becomes even sharper (and alarming) if, as suggested earlier, the computations are based on instruction-related expenditure rather than total expenditure. The costs calculated above differ markedly from those estimated in the CooLey Commission Report (1981, p. 111) and suggest the need for a critical study of higher education costs in Nigeria. In concluding this section, it will be noted that a firm of management consultants engaged by the Cookey Commission identified 600job titles in the Nigerian university system (Cookey Commission Report, 1981, p. 246) and went further to recommend new jobs, mostly within the cadre of administrative and supporting staff which, if the above argument is valid, is already over-established. It is doubtful whether this proposal is in the long-term strategic interest of universities. EXCESSIVE WELFARE ROLE Even in a developing country like Nigeria, for a minimal, internationallyacceptable academic functioning, certain basic services are essential for normal university functioning. These include roads, power and water supply and an efficient communication system. While, as a consumer of these public utilities, a university pays in accordance with its consumption level, the initial capital outlay for their provision is normally the responsibility of the State or its appointed agencies. However, in Nigeria, the pattern of supply of these essential services is poor and, to maintain international credibility, universities have to spend a substantial part of their capital grant to correct this deficiency. For example, capital grants are often invested on access roads to campuses through public property; construction of dams and water reservoirs to supplement inadequate public supplies and investment on power generators (recently the mainstay of energy supply to campuses). While these investments (which are not

32 normally a substantial component of capital outlay in most universities elsewhere) are normally excluded from the computation of unit cost of university education, their maintenance (in terms of equipment, staff, etc.) constitutes a substantial drain of recurrent revenue. Thus, in real and comparable terms, an approximate cost per FTE student of $3392 computed above for ABU in 1979/80 (as compared with $6,441 for Lancaster in the same year) would be substantially smaller. Assuming that 10 percent of the recurrent revenue of ABU is spent on the maintenance of these essential services, other factors remaining equal, the 47 percent differential in expenditure per FTE student between Lancaster University and ABU becomes 53 percent. A proposed capital investment of N (m)251.856 in higher education (Third National Devlopment Plan, 1975-80, Chapter XVI, para. 70) is therefore misleading since a substantial amount of this will be devoted to the provision of essential services which are normally a government responsibility. Despite increased student enrolment, expansion of the academic programme and staff population growth at Ilorin University between 1976 and 1983, there was a decrease in recurrent allocation to teaching and research (see Table VI, expenditure category 1). In contrast, between 1979 and 1983, recurrent expenditure on premises (Table VI, expenditure category 4) increased. This apparent anomaly may not be unconnected with the increasing unreliability of essential public services during this period. While university education is undoubtedly an expensive business, Nigerian governments may indeed not have been spending on it, in real terms, as much as it was politically expedient to publicize. Another welfare role which exerts pressure on recurrent and capital revenues of Nigerian universities is investment in staff housing, particularly for senior staff - a role which is not normally associated with university function in Europe and America. Apart from the maintenance of guest houses and hostels, especially for visiting foreign staff and students (and which are normally run as self-sustaining ventures), British universities do not invest substantially on staff housing. In contrast, all senior staff of ABU in 1979/80 "qualify" for university housing; about 48 percent of these occupy university-owned houses (largely on campus) with another 6 percent housed in university-rented housing units off-campus (ABU Digest of Statistics, Vol. Two, Table 40, p. 51). In line with government regulation on staff housing, the remaining 46 percent are granted rent subsidies directly from recurrent revenue. It will be noted that while staff pay a rent for university accommodation, it is usually at a rate substantially below market value thus resulting in a considerable subsidy for rented apartments. Furthermore, the housing units are furnished and maintained with the university's recurrent funds. This liberal housing policy evolved at Ibadan University in its formative years (when foreign staff accounted for the bulk of the staff population) as a strategy to attract and retain foreign experts by providing housing and a working

33 environment not radically different from what they are used to. This policy has been retained by universities (and enjoyed by both foreign and indigenous staff alike) even when foreigners no longer constitute a substantial proportion of senior staff and private housing development, particularly in urban centres, has improved substantially in the country both quantitatively and qualitatively. While this policy may, in principle, be justifiable as part of an overall strategy for evolving and maintaining internationally acceptable academic standards, it appears illogical for universities to continue to bear the burden of a social deficiency that is obviously that of the State. Recent government housing policy involves the construction of housing units on campus from federal funds. It is not known whether this has a political motive or is a deliberate attempt to relieve universities of an unfair burden. The Third National Development Plan, 1975-80 (Chapter 16, para. 36) had a goal of ensuring 50 percent on-campus accommodation for students in the entire university system, but by 1979/80, ABU provided 86 percent of its students with on-campus accommodation. While the peculiar rural circumstances of ABU, Ire University and University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for example, with respect to student accommodation may not be representative of the entire university system, they illustrate the pressure for on-campus student accommodation, regardless of cost. In contrast to ABU, Lancaster University provided on-campus accommodation for 56 percent of its student enrolment in 1975/76 and the national average for Britain in the same year was 46 percent (Daniels, 1980). While some degree of on-campus residence can promote the academic development of a university, a high degree may raise unit cost of education substantially without necessarily increasing overall academic performance. The high cost of student accommodation on-campus may partly account for why most Nigerian universities, as a matter of policy, force students to live off-campus for at least one year even when there is no alternative accommodation and they therefore live on campus "illegally". EXCESSIVE DIVERSIFICATION The concept of limitless growth finds expression also in excessive diversification of academic programmes. Table IX is a check-list of the academic programmes in some Nigerian universities and, for comparison, in some of the more recent British universities using, for convenience, the subject grouping.of the U.K. University Grants Committee. While almost all Nigerian universities tend to stretch their resources over all the academic groupings, their British counterparts do not. It is important to note that the subject groups which are Selectively omitted by the British universities are those of the applied sciences and professional disciplines which also are the most expensive in terms of both capital and recurrent expenditure. Furthermore, the omissions suggest a delib-

34 erate central strategic planning rather than a coincidence of individual university emphasis. In addition to the pressure of excessive diversification on resources, based on the demand/cost curve (see Fig. 4), it is not unlikely that there is potentially considerable underutilization of some academic programmes in the entire university system. The extent to which this constitutes avoidable resource wastage is not known. The proposal for the establishment of"centres of excellence" (incorporated into the Fourth National Development Plan, 1981-85) by which selected academic programmes will be deliberately emphasized in selected universities is a tacit admission of the inherent danger and cost of excessive and simultaneous diversification. DUPLICATION/RESOURCE

UNDERUTILIZATION

Some internal power struggle (which is not often readily admitted) is a c o m m o n feature of any university and, with adequate control, may not necessarily be inhibitory to academic efficiency and effectiveness. A domain of internal power struggle in Nigerian universities is, in some cases, the unjustifiable duplication of expensive capital equipment which, if not resulting in wastage, results in resource underutilization. Such duplication is more prevalent in the pure and applied sciences than in other disciplines within the university. For example, the

DEMAND/COST FOR

HIGHER

CURVE

EDUCATION

/,'7 w z w o3 11. 0 I0

I I E TOTAL

EXPENDITURE

Fig. 4. Demand/Cost curve for higher education.

35 acquisition of a number of electron microscopes by a Nigerian university for use in different departments can neither be justified by need and maximal utilization nor by the extent of expertise available for their utilization. It is surprising that, while the principle of centralization and therefore maximal resource utilization has been found useful in the acquisition and use of computers, for example, the same has not been extended with other, albeit less expensive, capital equipment. It is important to note that judicious utilization of capital grant could be a crucial factor in recurrent budgeting since (as will be shown in a follow-up study) even short-term investment of capital funds could provide substantial recurrent revenue. INADEQUATE EXECUTIVE CAPACITY A major contributor to decline which Nigerian universities must accept, no matter how unsavoury, is the absence of ideas sufficiently innovative to contain it and mitigate its effects. This is probably largely due to the inadequacy of executive capacity at most management levels in the entire university system. Of importance is the apparent inability or reluctance of administration to adequately admit that conditions are deteriorating. In this connection it is relevant to quote from the report of an Academic Planning Group (consisting largely of distinguished, senior Nigerian academics) to the National Universities Commission pre-empting and proffering solutions to the problems that might then (in 1976) be associated with the development of new universities (National Universities Commission, 1977, p. 120): 489. Similarly,the extent of the financial resourcessunk into the universitysystemthrough the NUC also, is revealing.Such has been the effectof expansion and of inflation. One very likely cause of "limits to growth" in the Nigerian higher education system is obvious. The emphasis of the advisory panel on "limits to growth" underscores their inability or unwillingness to apprehend the deteriorating conditions and to make management proposals to contain it. Administration of universities is a legacy of British colonial administration and is based almost entirely on the committee system. However, university administration has become excessively rigid and bureaucratically over-centralized (National Universities Commission, 1977, p. 120). This makes even routine governance tortuous and the generation of innovations necessary for dealing with the present situation difficult. With the exception of the committees of the Governing Councils, all other university committees are composed almost entirely of academic administrators (i.e. provosts of colleges, deans of faculties, directors of institutes, heads of departments, etc.). While the academic competence of the academic administrator may not be in doubt, given the prevailing

36 situation, his ability to formulate effective management policy in an increasingly complex organization under conditions of decline with minimal guidance from the professional administrator probably is. Adequate management of decline requires experienced and innovative professionals. The administrative experience of the academic administrator derives almost entirely from the university system and, particularly, was acquired during periods of growth. This is an inappropriate qualification for the effective management of decline (Cameron, 1983). Between 1975 and 1977, seven new universities were established. The new campuses were created during a period of rapid growth in the Nigerian economy as a result of the global petroleum situation. The Third National Development Plan which conceived the universities assumed, erroneously (at least in retrospect), continuous economic growth. The understandable massive inflow of development funds into the new universities must have created an illusion of an almost limitless financial resource as the foundation administrations of the new campuses employed management strategies that were indistinguishable from those of the older universities. For example, grandiose building development projects and extensive academic programmes were initiated which could hardly be sustained in succeeding years. It should be noted that, at the same time, some of tlae older universities were already declining. This, and the fact that the new universities drew their staff (both academic and administrative) largely from the older universities underscores the relative inexperience of administration in the management of decline. Under the prevailing committee system of management, the professional administrator has two major functions: (1) day-to-day administration of the bureaucracy in accordance with policy guidelines laid down by appropriate committees and; (2) routine administrative servicing of committees. The more intellectually demanding and potentially rewarding role (both to the university and personally to the administrator) of offering professional guidance and advice has been de-emphasized. The inadequate impact of the professional administrator in strategic management of universities may be due to a combination of factors. A large proportion of senior management staff are brilliant college graduates in virtually every academic discipline except those closely related to administration and management. (Administration and management graduates find more lucrative employment in business and industry.) Their first employment is often either in the university or the public sector, such as the civil service or the teaching profession. Experience in university administration is thus acquired on the job with little or no relevant academic base for the job requirements. If this experience is acquired during a period of growth (as is indeed the case with most senior management staff) it becomes inadequate for the management of decline. Furthermore, the operational milieu of the professional administrator inhibits

37 the generation of innovative ideas which management of decline requires. This situation thus encourages the more innovative staff to seek alternative employment. It is widely held that the present decline in Nigerian universities has led to staff migration to other sectors of the economy, principally the private sector. The magnitude of this migration, particularly with respect to management staff and the extent to which it can be attributed to decline a n d / o r lack job satisfaction through the inhibition of innovative ideas, has not been established.

Conclusion It must be confessed that this study was started with a bias against the few measures that have been taken to contain a situation of decline which universities have failed to diagnose appropriately. The present data, preliminary as they are, illustrate that the present responses, particularly with respect to the allocation of resources, have had the effect of making the inpact of decline fall more on areas of academic function than on the supportive functions of the university. Options for effective management of decline are often unsavoury and administration must make difficult decisions if university education is to be maintained at an internationally acceptable level and if universities are, through research, to play a greater role in society. An aspect of the present study which requires scrutiny is the relative recurrent expenditure per student. A more accurate comparison than has been presently been attempted requires a knowledge of the portion of the revenue of Nigerian universities devoted to their social welfare roles and to the provision and maintenance of essential services which are normally responsibilities of the State. Indeed, the major thrust in efforts to halt the present decline may be to persuade government to assume these financial burdens. Low level use of technology in management has probably greatly increased costs without an appreciable increase in efficiency and effectiveness. A major internal exercise in job evaluation is advocated as it appears that in contemporary times the retention or growth of some job categories may not be in the long-term interest of the entire system. In any case, a critical appraisal of the present system of university management is desirable to ascertain whether or not it cannot be better adapted to contemporary circumstances.

Acknowledgement This study was carried out during the tenure of a Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship of the Association of Commonwealth Universities at the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lancaster, England while the

38 author was on a study leave from the University of Ilorin. Information on Nigerian universities was kindly provided by Mrs. Garland, the information officer of the National Universities Commission's London Office and the Registrar, University of Ilorin, Mr. Olu Daramola. The author received a lot of inspiration for this study from Professor W. T. W. Potts of Lancaster University who also critically read the manuscript. Professor Kenneth Olson, Indiana University School of Medicine, provided information on the University of Notre Dame.

References Ahmadu BeUo University, Zaria, Nigeria (1980). Digest of Statistics. VoL Two, Zaria: Development Office, ABU, 56 pp. Asiwaju, A. I. (1972). "Ashby revisited: A review of Nigeria's educational growth, 1961-1971," African Studies Review XV (1): 1-16. Baron, B. (1978). "The Managerial Approach to Tertiary Education: A Critical Analysis," Studies in Education Series, No. 7. London: University of London Institute of Education, 103 pp. Bowen, H. R. (1980). The Costs of Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 287 pp. Cameron, K. (1983). "Strategic responses to conditions of decline: Higher education and the private sector," Journal of Higher Education, 54 (4): 359-380. Cohen, M. D., March, J. G. and Olsen, J. P. (1972). "A garbage-can model of organizational choice," Administrative Science Quarterly 17:1 25. Daniels, R. W. (1980). "Papers on university structure and development: Comparative aspects of Lancaster and other new universities." Lancaster: Lancaster Univ. Library. 32 pp. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). Report of the Presidential Commission on Salary and Conditions of service of University Staff Lagos: National Assembly Press, 319 pp. Ford, J. D. (1980). "The occurrence of structural hysteresis in declining organization," Academy of Management Review 5: 589-598. National Universities Commission, Lagos, Nigeria (1977). Report of the Academic Planning Group. 121 pp. Taiwo, C. O. (1980). The Nigerian Education System: Past, Present and Future. Lagos: Thomas Nelson, 252 pp. University Grants Committee: Statistics of Education (1976-1979). Universities, Vol. 6. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office. University of llorin. Estimates, 1980/81.85 pp. University of llorin. Estimates, 1982/83. 112 pp. University of Ilorin, llorin, Nigeria (1982). Statutory Senate Report to the Visitation Panel. University of Notre Dame du Lac. (1982). Financial Statements, June 30, 16 pp.

39 t'-

'~ 0 I

l

P

l

Z

<<

e*

0

Z e~

9 tt~

..= ~

CD t'~

O0

Z II e~

Z

0

C

t"q O0 "~

.

0

~a

I

m, m, <

I

I

I

40

Appendix 2 FUNCTIONAL ALLOCATION OF RECURRENT EXPENDITURE FOR THE UNIVERSITY OF ILOR1N 1. Teaching Research Teaching and research units (including Use of English, General Studies and National Awareness programmes); General university research 2. Academic Services Libraries; Educational resources unit; Centre point; computer centre; Educational technology; Central Workshop. 3. General Education Expenditure Academic, Senate and examination offices; Biological garden; COBES unit; Unilorin theatre; Staff development; General academic expenditure. 4. Premises Works and maintenance department; Parks and gardens unit; General university expenditure. 5. Student Amenities and Welfare Student affairs office; Health services; Student services (incl. catering, hall of residence, student welfare). 6. Administration Central administration (excluding units indicated in other categories); Faculty offices. 7. Miscellaneous and others Public service units (incl. university school, laboratory technician training scheme); Commercial ventures (incl. bakery, guest house, university farm, university press). Note: Each category includes salaries staff and emoluments and other recurrent costs.