EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN DENMARK A CRITICAL-DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION? Stig Brostrom Centre for Early Childhood Research Royal Danish School of Educational Studies Copenhagen, Denmark ************ Cet article decrit une etude entreprise en 1987 dans des institutions prescolaires danoises. Le Danemark n'a pas de programme centralise mais des lois qui necessitent une collaboration etroite entre parents, enseignants et enfants en ce qui concerne Ie contenu journalier du travail dans les institutions. L'etude examine les resultats d'un questionnaire, qui lente de decouvrir comment les parents et les enseignants voient Ie travail effectue, Les resultats sont examines sur un fond d'Idees philosophiques autour de la democratic, d'ecologle globale et locale et d'emergence de la valeur de soi chez les enfants. Si les programmes doivent developper Phabilite a prendre pleinement part a la vie democratique du pays, I'argument est, que Ie contenu des activites prescolaires doit mettre I'accent sur la Iiberte d'csprit 1)lutot que sur une approche didactique de I'education, La these s'al)llUie sur des references a de recentes recherches. Esto documento describe un estudio han en 87 escudo de infancia en Dinmarca. Dinmarca no tiene un curriculum central, pero tiene leyes que exigan colaboracion cercana entre los padres, los maestros y los ninos respecto al contento diario del trabajo en esas intitucinas, EI estudio examine las resultas de un cuestionario que busca descubrir como los padres y los maestros consideran al trabajo que esta hacenda. Las resultas estan examinando contra el fondo de ideas fllosoflcos ccrcanias la democracia, ecologia local y global y la salida del valor de si mismo en los nifios, Si van desarrollar la capacidad a complete participar en la vida democratica del pais, se argumente que, eI contento de la actividad en la escuela de infancia debe enfacar "liberal" que es mejor que una entrada "didactic". Esta tesis esta sosteneda para referencia a investigaciones recientas.

INTRODUCTION

plan of activity, goes to the local authority

In Denmark there is no central curriculum for early childhood education. On the basis of a tradition with decentralization the educators in co-operation with the parents and also the children create their own curriculum and everyday life.

and is the steering gear during the next year. In order to prepare the plan of activity, the only centralized guide is a short text in the Circular of Day-offers for Children and Youth from 1990: "In collaboration with parents, the day care centre should create such conditions that encourage the children's development, wellbeing, and independence.

In 1992 in order to strengthen the democracy, the Ministry for Social Affairs fixed the parents influence by law by means of the Act of Governing Body of the Parents. This law demands a process whereby the Governing Body of the Parents in co-operation with the educators discuss and decide not only all educational but also financial affairs.

In addition there are very few educational guidelines for the educational work: "A secure day with weight on close contacts between the individual child and adults. Use ofplay andfree space, where children can act on their own premises, in combination with planned activities and other shared actions in order to support the individual child's development and ability to co-operate and function together with others"

Every year the educators in collaboration with the parents have to formulate the educational work. This document, named

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Moreover the democratic aspect is stressed. Not only the parents shall be involved in decisions about life in day care centres, but also the children shall be heard: "In agreement with the children's maturity they shall participate in planning of the activities. Through this they appropriate experiences about the relation between influence on and responsibility for him- and herselfand the community".

made in search of state statements concerning educational aims and objectives, the contents of the education, and educational principles in agreement with following definitions: The purpose of the educational activities is described through aims and objectives. The aims round up the overall perspective or the educational Utopian ideas. These have a political character and are based on both a view of society and view of mankind. Such formulations have a general character and need to be concretized through detailed statements: the objectives. These describe the knowledge, the skills and personal development the whole child might achieve during his or her years in kindergarten.

However, some few local authorities have published some ideas concerning the content and some guidelines about how to implement it. For example a municipality near Copenhagen suggests to stress the following: Create steady relations to the adult. Help the children to establish friendships. Create surroundings which cause experiences and challenges. Support children's own activities. Help children to develop creativity and fantasy. Make space for physical activities. Develop a consciousness of nature. Help children to be familiar with new technology.

The concept educational contents refers to that substance with which the educator enables the children to have contact, or with which the educator more directly challenges the children. Referring to Wolfgang Klafki (1964) the contents may have a material or a formal character, and with that, be in agreement respectively with a material education or a formal education.

Apart from this during the last two or three years the single governing body of the parents has produced their own curriculum expressed in a plan of activity. These plans give insight into what happens in Danish kindergartens.

By use of the concept educational principles the most fundamental educational understanding is encompassed and expressed. The basic ideas are to encourage consistency and are regardless of the children's age and particular circumstances, e.g. "children develop themselves via activ-

Through a study of 87 plans of activity from kindergartens with children from 0 to 6 years from five municipalities north of Copenhagen, the contents of the plans were examined, and following question addressed: are the dominant educational ideas a thing of the past or are they in touch with the future?

ity".

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 76% of the plans of activity give independence and self-esteem a high priority. In the plans the following words are used: "being self-reliant, not being afraid to take the initiative, being able to stand forward and take the floor, to be in touch with own feelings and to be sure of oneself, be self-confident". That

A DIDACTIC ANALYSIS The plans of activity were analyzed from a didactic view. That means an analysis was

means parents and educators stress the 8

individual's personal development. But at

and obtain influence on own conditions oflife through a responsible, equal and joint cooperation with other people in a democratic society.

the same time this is not contrary to social activities. In 60% of the plans we see varied formulations of objectives, which aim at the development of social competencies. This is expressed through formulations like "social understanding and behaviour, being able to establish contact with other children and adults, being able to co-operate and help one another, in spite of differences to respect other people, take care of the fellowship and enjoy being together with other people". This social dimension is also seen via the accentuation of the objective "good fellowship and friendship" which occurs in 31 % of the plans. For example in one plan it is expressed like this: "The adults have to respect the children's friendly relations and shall help the children to establish close personal relations in order to strengthen children's good fellowship and maybe friendships".

Self-determination is the child's independent choice of possibilities of action without in a formal way being dependent on other person's decisions Fr.

This definition is concretized: "For the youngest it is to force a doorstep in order to follow the educator, who has entered the bathroom, instead of only cry and call the educator. For the older children it means to take the initiative yourself, to decide what to do, and how to do". If the child, in co-operation with other children experiences very early the possibility of expressing his/her own feelings and wishes, and subsequently acts in accordance with these, maybe a foundation is established for being able to involve him/herself, and in a binding way, take part in the community. A movement from being an onlooker to a participant is the very first condition of being able to develop democracy.

In about two thirds of the plans of activity the presence of both the individual and the social dimension is seen. This might signify, that Danish educators and parents want independent young people with self-reliance and self-esteem but who are not selfsatisfied and self-sufficient, and who only are concerned about their own matters. The children's self-confidence is linked with an understanding of the necessity to be together and to co-operate. The conscious combination of individuality and social fellowship is expressed in 25% of the plans. Here the objectives contain statements about self-management and democracy. The concept of selfmanagement, is defined as having influence on one's own life and being able to take care of yourself and the community. In one plan self-management and selfdetermination are defined: "Self-management is the individual child's ability and will to create his or her own life

THE EDUCATIONAL CONTENT. In agreement with the Froebelian tradition of kindergarten, 76% of the plans give priority to play. Here play is described as children's fundamental way of living. Play is seen as the way in which young children learn and express themselves. Most of the plans mention how the educators are able to make space for play and to feed play. Moreover 43% of the plans describe how play influences the child's development in imagination, fantasy and creativity in general. In opposition, the statements relating to song, music, rhythmics, movement and artistic activities in general is restricted. Only 30% of the plans mention song and music, 25% describe rhythmics and movements, and only 22% of the plans 9

mention artistic actrvrties in general. Moreover these aspects are not at all mentioned in the objectives. Because the tradition of Nordic early childhood education is built on play and creative activities this low priority is surprising. Perhaps the educators understand aesthetic activities as obvious contents, and for that reason think it is not necessary to mention them. Or conversely, do we see a general downgrading of the aesthetic and artistic activities?

formal education wants to develop ways of

thinking, emotional categories, standards of value, in short: Methods by means of which the young individual can appropriate the amount of contents, when this is demanded from a future life situation. Except for "nature and ecology" the content is characterized of artistic and aesthetic activities (play, song and music etc.). Through such activities according to the plans the children will develop their individuality and some open and wide competencies like independence, selfesteem and social competence.

Very seldom do the plans contain a clear description of a content the children have to meet. However, in a few plans we see social-minded and critical formulations like developing of conflict consciousness (17%),

The open-ended character of the objectives and the reduction of the educational content to almost only forms of activity demonstrates, that Danish early childhood education expressed through these 87 plans of activity is lacking in a determination of educational content. The problem can be described as ''form without substance".

consciousness of culture and society (11%) and environmental consciousness (26%). For

example: "Developing the child's respect for and understanding of nature, create an ecological way of thinking, responsibility for nature, experiences with nature and environmental consciousness, and help the children to learn they are dependent on nature".

THE EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES Most of the plans stress the role of the adults. In 71% of the plans the educators engagement, involvement and commitment is emphasized. In other words empathic adults are seen as an educational principle. In the plans this is expressed through words as: "attentive, warmth, empathic adults, who

Because we see an increasing environmental consciousness in the population, it is not surprising to find this dimension in the kindergarten. But except for the formulation of environmental consciousness the rest of the objectives have a general character and only mention some types or forms of activity, e.g. play and creative activities. This might indicate, that the educational thinking among Danish educators and parents tends towards a formal education (Klafki, 1964). Contrary to a material education, which aims to communicate special forms of knowledge and skiIIs to the children, a formal education weights the form of the activity. Through the child's activity new competencies will arise. With references to Klafki (1964) a methodical

show confidence and listen to children, are respectful and take children seriously, give their love and care to children and meet children's demand".

Except for a distinct formulation about play and adults with empathy most of the plans are very weak according to expressed fundamental principles. Yet 23% stress the idea of giving children influence and responsibility, 23% mention the importance of children's own experiences, 18% speak about the principle of challenge and scaffolding children. 10

children are subjects in their own learning processes in order to appropriate real knowledge.

A PROPOSAL FOR A CRITICAL DEMOCRATIC DIDACTIC Although the plans of activity can be criticised for a lack of content, at the same time most of them reflect an important educational understanding: education as liberal education (in German: Bildung).

To appropriate knowledge through a practice characterized as liberal education does not mean just to get information. Here practice is not reduced to technique. Knowledge is closely connected to the individual's feelings and actions. The 'liberal' educated person is bound by his or her knowledge. This is expressed by Bent Nielsen, a Danish educator: "In liberal education, over and above insight in a sphere of knowledge, there lies the fact that a criterion has been established for utilization of that knowledge, that one has accepted a responsibility for how, and for what one will use this knowledge" (Nielsen,

Liberal education shall not be seen as a product, hardly as a process, but as a perspective. A perspective which can be maintained through the distinction liberal education versus adjustment. Adjustment is aimed to socialize people in a place within the social system, to teach them the rules without realizing, that the life of a society can be discussed and changed. And with Hellesnes's word: "Adjustment reduces humans to objects for political processes which they do not recognize as political; an adjusted human being is thus more an object for direction and control than a thinking and acting subject. Liberal education means that people are socialized into the problem complexes pertaining to the preconditions for what occurs around them and with them. Liberal education emancipates humans to be political subjects (Hellesnes, 1976, p. 18).

1973, p. 40-41).

Liberal education is more than taking a conscious stand. On the basis of reflection and assessment the person acts in agreement with his or her understanding of the particular subject. The distinction from adjustment also contributes to maintain liberal education as political liberal education in a democratic perspective. This is not about being treated like an object, but to be a thoughtful participant in the democracy, and not only an adjusted onlooker. First of all democracy is characterized through the people's possibility to participate in social actions.

A liberal education does not want to transfer knowledge and norms without arguments. Conversely, to persuade the child, the educator tries to establish a dialogue, through which the child is supported to reflect and to draw his or her own conclusions in the search for a wider understanding. The educator and the child enter into a subject-subject relation through which they focus on a shared object (Freire, 1972). The character of the dialogue can also be described in accordance with Habermas' "non-controlling communication" including four universal-pragmatic rules: a communication in which understanding, truth, correctness and honesty are expressed (Habermas, 1984-87). Here the

Looking at the objectives in the Danish plans of activity formulations like "independence, social competence, fellowship, self-determination and democracy, conflict consciousness etc. indicate a kind of liberal education. Although the everyday life of this education is democratic and in all probability will contribute to the development of a democratic view and competence, some 11

problems arise. Because the objectives are diffuse and the educational contents do not point to some particular subjects and substance, this practice as earlier mentioned tends towards a methodical formal education.

On the basis of an analysis of the modern society and a reflection on the future the educational contents should be established. The future shall be seen in a double perspective. On the one hand it can be described through the threatening tendencies in a high risk society (Giddens, 1990), and on the other hand it can be understood in the light of new visionary possibilities in a global world.

To overcome the problem "form without substance" and at the same time maintaining the aspect of emancipation and democracy, perhaps Klafki's category liberal education can be used as a starting point (Klafki, 1964). This approach is a unity of a formal and material liberal education, a unity of the personal subjective experience and the objective reality. The child acts as a subject contemporary with his or her handling with the objective content. The objective or material aspect is the child's appropriation of concepts and knowledge, the subjective or formal aspect is considered if the child in his or her activity is active, engaged and involved.

Giddens (1990) describes the threatening tendencies in a mutual relation between growth in the totality of power, conflict on nuclear power, global war, ecological break down and also a collapse of the mechanism of the economic development. Correspondingly Klafki (1994) discusses the relation between society and decisions of the educational contents. Similarly, he outlines six key problems: The question about war and peace, the problem of nationalism, the ecological problem, the social produced disparity, and finally the danger and possibility of new management and communications media.

On basis of this theory the educator (and the children) have to select knowledge and categories through which the world will be available for the child, and too, at the same time, the child is available for the world.

Often in Danish didactic theories this is summarized and described as three crises: an ecological, a democratic and an economic crisis.

The selection of such categories are the pivot, which also is seen in Paulo Freire's (1972) theory, namely through the concept "themes ofgenerative character".

In Klafki's words "such societal risks and possibilities set education new and big problems and tasks" ( 1994). On the basis of such a rough model one can outline some didactic criteria of which problems and perspectives, can be a part of the educational contents.

CONTENTS WHICH MIGHT HAVE A FUTURE The children should meet a content, which points the way ahead and helps to make the world transparent. When the child is grown up he/she will live in a new world and should be able to solve problems of that world. For that reason the children have to experience some fundamental problems of their time.

Although such a methodical thinking is not explicitly expressed in the Danish plans of activity, we see some signs. In 26% of the plans the objective "environmental consciousness" is formulated, and also in 25% plans "nature and ecology" is the content of education, which so to 12

speak repeats the ecological CrISIS. As earlier described the children's consciousness of nature is also stressed in a guidance from one Copenhagen municipality. This too, is seen in the Norwegian National Curriculum for the Nursery School, which also has an influence on the Danish debate: "Questions on nature- and environment become more and more important. Also with consequences for the nursery schooL Both according to how the nursery school is managed, and through the subjects the children deals with. In nursery school children can meet the ecological challenges... ". (Barne og familiedepartementet, 1992).

encies. First of all this is seen as the possibility for children to participate in social activities through which they acquire social skills, knowledge and critical insight into society plus experiences which have an influence on own situation and the development of culture and society. In this way schools and kindergartens are "democratic public spheres" in which children can learn how to be both "critical thinkers and transformative actors" (Giroux, 1987, p. 120). Still in the American educator Giroux's words the purposes of critical education are twofold in that they: "... not only empower students by giving them the knowledge and skills they need to be able to function in the larger society as critical agents, but also educate them for the transformative action .... in the interest of creating a truly democratic society" (Giroux, 1988, xxxiii),

Because the Danish plans stress the developing of environmental consciousness through subjects about nature and ecology, it should be possible from this position to make a didactic sketch, which uses both Klafki's and Giddens' idea of the threatening tendencies as a starting point for making decisions about the educational contents.

From my point of view the educator and the didactic researcher have to formulate their theory and view of society, their understanding of a true democracy. As an example Etzioni (1968) describes the Active Society - a not existing society - as a society where all groups and individuals take active part in the public life. Like this free elections, freedom of expression and other important civil rights are not the core of democracy, which is the citizens' will and competence to participate.

DEMOCRACY AS OBJECTIVE, CONTENT AND PRINCIPLE Obviously democracy should be the educational pivot. This is not conclusively expressed in the plans, but is seen as more than a tendency. In response to the democratic crisis 25% of the plans stress the objective "self-determination and democracy" and 23% mention "children's influence and responsibility" as an educational principle. All of these are democratic elements which also are formulated in the Circular of Day-offers for Children and Youth. Moreover in the current Danish early childhood debate the child's selfdetermination and management is the most important issue. Like this it should be possible to formulate a didactic theory containing democracy as objective, content, principle and as form of organizing. In a democratic society schools and kindergartens should develop democratic compet-

A future task must be to formulate didactic sketches containing formulations of objectives, which have a future. For example in the Danish debate the following competencies are expressed (Kristensen, 1991): To investigate and understand the present reality To investigate and understand current tendency of development To make clear, formulate and take up an attitude concerning values To investigate and understand alternatives to tendency of development 13

To investigate and understand how to intervene and create actions To develop courage to explain and meet difficulties To appropriate skills according to socialcultural experiments To befamiliar with 'sociology of conflicts' To develop new learning processes and subsequent processes of changes To appropriate a communicative competence and an action competence.

Collier-Macmillian Limited & New York: The Free Press. Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences Modernity. Cornwall: Polity press.

of

Giroux, H.A. (1987). Citizenship, public philosophy and the struggle for democracy. In: Educational Theory, 37, vol 2, (pp. 103-120). Giroux, H.A. (1988). Teachers as Intellectuals: Towards a Critical Pedagogy of Learning. South Hadey, Massachusetts: Bergin and Garvey.

CONCLUSION To focus on the educational objectives and contents in order to develop democratic competencies is obviously important. Together with educational principles like "to see the child as an active subject, who creates his or her personal development through own activity" these constitute at the same time a unity of form and content. Thus the dialectical relation between object and subject, the objective and material aspect on the one hand and the subjective and formal aspect on the other hand, is maintained.

Habermas, I. (1984 & 1987) The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 1 and 2. Boston: Beacon Press. Hellesnes, I. (1976). Socialisering og teknokrati. (Socialization and technocracy). Copenhagen: Gyldendal. Klaiki, W. (1964). Das padagogische Problem des Elementaren und die Theorie der Kategori alen Bildung. Weinheim: Beitz. Klafki, W. (1976). Aspekte kritisch-konstruktiv er Erziehungswissenshajts. Weinheim und Basel: Belz Verlag. Klaiki, W. (1994). Schlusselprobleme als inhaltlicher Kern lnternationaler Erziehung. Aus: Seibert, N & Serve, H.I. (Hrsg.). Bildung und Erziehung. Multidisziplinare Aspekte. Miinchen

Finally, in spite of the fact that education and didactic research and work are not able to solve the problems of humanity, the rising generation is a part of that world, which they in future have to make better, and for that reason they have to deal with present pleasure and problems.

Kristensen, H.I. (1991). Poedagogic i teori of praksis. Skolen i 90'erne. (Education in theory and practice. The school in the nineties). Copenhagen: Gyldendal. Ministry of Social Affairs. (1990). The Circular of Day-offers for Children and Youth. Copenhagen.

REFERENCES Barne og familiedepartementet. (1992). Rail/me plan for barnehagen. (A curriculum for the nursery school). Oslo. (NOV 1992: 17).

Nielsen, B. (1973). Praksis og kritik. (Practice and Criticism). Copenhagen: Ejlers Forlag.

Etzioni, A. (1968). The Active Society - A Theory of Societal and Political Processes. London:

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