Fresenius Zeitschrift fiir

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 297, 243-248 (1979)

9 by Springer-Verlag 1979

Education in Analytical Chemistry* Hanns Malissa Institute of Analytical Chemistry, TechnicalUniversity of Vienna, Getreidemarkt 9, A-1060 Vienna, Austria

Ausbildung in Analytischer Chemic Zusammenfassung. Die Notwendigkeit, philosophische Gesichtspunkte in den Unterricht in Analytischer Chemie aufzunehmen, wird betont und Vorschlfige werden gemacht zu neuen Definitionen der Analytischen Chemic. Erw/igungen werden angestellt tiber die Probe als Repr/isentant eines Kollektivs und als Informationstr/iger. Ein idealer Lehrplan wird zur Diskussion gestellt.

Summary. After pointing out the necessity of including philosophical aspects in the teaching areas of Analytical Chemistry, proposals are made of new definitions of Analytical Chemistry and considerations are given of samples as representatives of a collective and carriers of information. An idealistic curriculum is presented for discussion. Key words: Analytische Chemic; grunds/itzliche Betrachtungen zu Unterrichtsproblemen

It is useful to recall that education, as such, is deeply connected with our systems of human values. Education in general does not merely seek the development and transfer of information to build up our sciences but also is concerned to improve the human condition. It also attempts to examine the fundamental ways of distinguishing between right and wrong in the control of our lives and environment. Leaving the humanistic aspects immediately an turning to our special problem of education in Analytical Chemistry it is felt from the very beginning that there were large problems to be resolved: We are * Presented at EuroanalysisIII conference,Dublin, August 20- 25, 1978

no longer sure of, and we have not yet agreed upon, what Analytical Chemistry is or importantly should be in the future. We are confronted with more or less "hazy" definitions which may be a major reason why Analytical Chemistry is not a fixed item in the curricula of all universities. This lack of a clear definition of our subject has come upon us at the time when the sophistication of instrumentation and so-called "automates" are reducing teaching time available for basic principles. By envy of sophisticated instrument-computer combinations we may lose the capacity of proper judgement and self-confidence. Further, if we are going to assign human qualities to machines, and mechanical or even electronic qualities to man, we will never overcome the often complained about "kitchen-maid" fate of the Analyst and of Analytical Chemistry. I have nothing against instruments or computers, they are not only welcome but even a necessity. However, they have to be placed on the right sites, used at right times, and we should be able to understand them and their modes of communication so that they are not commanding us but that we are their masters. Hence, it is necessary first of all to answer clearly: What is Analytical Chemistry? In trying to answer this question we have to go back a little to the philosophy and science of cognition and furthermore of analysis as such. It is worthwile to point out here that the great Irish philosopher, G. Berkeley, wrote his "Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" [1] 268 years ago in Dublin and founded "empirism". With his fundamental statement: " T o be is to be perceived", he gave a new direction to philosophy. From this point we shall try to find basic definitions and further to evaluate a scheme for teaching and education in Analytical Chemistry. It may be of help, if we reconsider the basic pattern of science and philosophy. The focus of every scientific consideration is always the object (the problem, the

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244

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., Band 297 (1979) induction

Philosophy

Science theory

idea

~

productoin

As 1

praxis { chem. eng, )

use

Analytical Chemistry

As2

theory

As 3 analysis (data evaluation )

( development of methods and instrumentation)

As4 praxis

Fig. 1. The four aspects of consideration

Fig. 2. Analysis-information

example, the matter of interest etc.) which exhibits the

Table 1

four basic attributes shown in Fig. 1. This concept means that for every item, regardless if it is an abstract or concrete one we have: 1. the idea or - the theory; 2. the use or - the praxis; 3. the image or - the analysis; 4. the production, generation or procreation or the synthesis. In arts and philosophy the left side of the picture is predominant, in science the right one. This scheme goes back to the old Greek philosophy of "the being of anything" and includes all types of objects which can be perceived, namely matter, form, reason and cause and this brings us directly to our basic question. The answer to this is profound and must be carefully considered in the near future. This system of the representation of science has two important implications : 1. If chemistry is a real object, then Analytical Chemistry is also a branch of chemistry in its own right as are Chemical Engineering or Theoretical Chemistry and 2. Analytical Chemistry as object has the same four representationel aspects. This latter statement may give rise to some problems at the beginning of our discussion. There will be a wide range of agreement for use of the term "Praxis of Analytical Chemistry" as well as in the theoretical aspects. Some difficulties may come from the term "Synthesis in Analytical Chemistry" and others form the meaning of "Analysis in Analytical Chemistry". This is the point where we have to think of new ways and directions in Education in Analytical Chemistry. Our main purpose of education is - as said before - to create means and tools to be able to distin-

Definitions of Analytical Chemistry in respect to: Philosopy: (general)

Via ad congruendum rei et intellectus

Science : (general)

Transformation of the latent information of the object into active information

System theory [3]:

A system consisting of (at least) two elements (sample and reagent) and one relation (reaction) to gain information

Pragmatism [3]:

The synoptic micro- and macrological consideration and evaluation of the material depending signals resulting from the chemical, physical, or biochemical reactions between sample and reagent for the eludication of the problem

guish between right and wrong, true and false, in other word to teach students in such a way they become able to find the truth. But what is truth? This question may be answered by a very short, but excellent definition by C. F. v. Weizs~icker [5]: "veritas est adaequatio rei et intetlectus". In our case we have to find the conformity of the evaluated data from a sample with the collective in question. This means we have to teach not only chemical and physical methods but also the theorems, axioms and methods necessary to be able to test the conformity of data. It can be shown that this can only be done, if we have enough logical and hermeneutical feedbacks until the difference between object (or matter) and intellect (or sense) is zero or at least at a minimum. The way, the action, in achieving this minimum condition, is analysis. Every analysis is a step

H. Malissa: Education in Analytical Chemistry

245

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Fig.3. General scheme in use at the University of Vienna

towards the verification of the truth in the sense of "adaequatio rei et intellectus" or in other words relation of expectation and reality [4]. In principle we have two possibily solutions, either by deduction (from generalities to singularities) or induction (from particularities to generality). In general we have to go alternately both ways. Without going into detailed philosophical aspects, it is to be noted that names like Descartes, Leibniz, Bacon, Locke and especially Newton, Berkeley, Hume and later Whitehead and Russcl as well as Planck, Wittgenstein, Mach and Einstein are strongly connected with our present picture of the "empirical-logical-positivism" directly applied to the area of Analytical Chemistry. One of the main axioms in the new concept of Analytical Chemistry is that the sample always stands in the center of our consideration and work, this is the starting point of all theoretical as well as practical evaluation of teaching Analytical Chemistry. The sample may be theoretical in concept but should in practice be representative for the collective in question of which we have as a proposition a more or less fixed idea. We now start to examine this sample according to our goal and our possibilities. From the result we make a comparison with the collective

(induction), from the result of this comparison we deduce again the properties of the sample. In so doing, step by step, we gain information as indicated schematically in Fig. 2. A strong relationship between Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and information theory is implied in this approach [4]. It is necessary to have further discussion about new concepts in education in Analytical Chemistry because a) the sample is not only matter but is also information, therefore, b) we are only "free" in the selection of our "reagent" for the "liberation" of the information from the matter and the "transformation" and/or "transportation" of the information to our "houses of knowledge". From these two statements the following arise: 1. the sample has to be considered as an entity, as a syncretic body (fusion) of matter + information. 2. Seperation schemes and quantitative determinations of elements are not the full basis of Analytical Chemistry. This implies we have to think and to act in accordance with the rules and techniques of system and information theory including pattern recognition as well as statistics.

246

Fresenius Z. Anal, Chem., Band 297 (1979)

Table 2 Idealistic curriculum of Analytical Chemistry

Sem.

Introduction to AC Philosophical and historical background, theory of cognition, logic and hermeneutic analysis and science

26

2

Chemical Analysis Sample and sampling, basic statistics, principles, methods and practice

66

4

5

Chemical Analysis Laboratory work Physical Analysis Interaction elementary particles-sample, evaluation of signals, instrumentation and use of physical analysis

40

Physical Analysis Laboratory work

Seminary h

130

30 140

Biochemical Analysis Enzymetic reagents, principles, methods and laboratory work

26

7

Informationtheory in AC Entropy and information, semeiotics, information content of methods, automation in and with AC, chemometrics and COBAC = computer based analytical chem.

26

8

Analytical Strategies Separation techniques and optimization, combination of methods

26

9

Analytical Chemistry in Life Science and Environmental Control

26

Master's Thesis in Analytical Chemistry

In order to answer now the question "what to teach" it seems to be essential to have a clear definition of Analytical Chemistry. It is well known that we have almost as many definitions of this subject as teachers and that philosophical pedagogical and scientific branches exist. In every case we ought to make clear statements. A selection of possible definitions is shown in Table 1. In teaching, the pragmatic way is very important and therefore further discussion to this definition is given for understanding the following proposals. 1. If e.g. Chemical Engineering is the synergetic fusion of chemistry and physics (and/or biochemistry) in order to produce (synthetise) something, then Analytical Chemistry is the synopsis of all the signals occurring during the processes between sample and reagent. "Synoptic" is to be understood more or less

Lab. h

182

6

10 teaching time with thesis: 1,268 = 31.7~ teaching time without thesis: 868 = 24.1

Lectures h

1

3

Total 4,000 Total 3,600

Topics

30

30

30

30 30

(400) Sum

236

542

90

verbatim and the individual results must fit together without any contradiction. 2. The term macro- and micrological are also essential because only these allow the clarification of the appearance and evaluation of the signals coming out of the actual micro- and macrostates of the sample, e.g. in atomic absorption or EPMA. In every analysis we have to obey the probabilities and distribution functions. In macrology we have a joint consideration of inter- and intra-relations whereas in micrology this is not the case. In not obeying this fact wrong data may be used. In XRFA, e.g. when only a single valence band was not considered, a wave-length shift gave wrong results. 3. In consequence of that the interdependence of the conditions of the material to be analysed, the reagent used and the signal gained is to be taught in such a way that

H. Malissa: Education in Analytical Chemistry

247

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Idealistic Curriculum 10 I

E

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",

Percentage of teaching time 20 30 40 50 60 70 I

I

I

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80

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Lectures

~Lab

~

Seminary

Fig. 4. Time distribution in the idealistic curriculum

a) in analysis the sample is always given and stands in the centre and b) the great divisions of practical Analytical Chemistry ba) in methods-orientated direction as e.g. spectroscopy, gravimetry and bb) material orientated direction as e.g. water or metal analysis are obeyed. 4. This means further that we have to teach the student not to alter the sample as far as possible, because every alteration reduces the information available. We are only free in the choice of the "reagent" to solve our analytical problem. The reagent may come from the fields of chemistry, physics or biology. This freedom is also a main guidance in our teaching scheme and obliges us to educate our students in the relevant reaction mechanisms as well as in relevant instrumentation including mathematics, information theory and information technology. Summing up and answering "what to teach", the "general scheme" [3] used at my University is shown in Fig. 3. In view of the fact that in the nineteen sixties a huge wave of so-called "democratisation" went over the western universities and that basic ideas have been ignored, it is in my opinon high time to go back again to our educational mission in science. In doing so, we have to start with the old but well established philosophical principles, proceed to the theory of cognition, then to the laws and theorems of physics, chemistry and so on as well as of information, followed up by a proper amount

Fig. 5. Time devoted to teaching Analytical Chemistry expressed as percentage (to the nearist 5 %) of the total time devoted to chemistry

248of time for practical work and finally discuss the strategies for problem solving in Analytical Chemistry. This more or less idealistic picture requires an amalgamation of old philosophical principles with a lot of new things, in the teaching guide lines as well as in the volume of material and time available to Analytical Chemistry. It is not (or at least it should not be) our task to fill our students only with chemical and physical methods, because the basic idea of an education at university level is to strengthen their power of judgement and self-confidence. Hence, we have to ask for time also to teach the philosophical and historical backgrounds as well as to point out the relation of Analytical Chemistry to our life. To end up with the question "what to teach" an generalized idealistic pragmatic scheme is put forward (Table 2) on the basis of 10 academic terms of 13 weeks of 30 h giving a total time of about 4,000 h. In every term Analytical Chemistry would be taught and a total of 24 ~ of the available time is devoted to Analytical Chemistry. This means we would have reached nearly the idealistic point of 25 ~ of total teaching time for "creating" a chemist. The time distribution is not homogenous as can be seen in Fig. 4.

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., Band 297 (1979) In comparison with the current situation in Europe, as shown in Fig. 5, this goal is achieved in many places where Analytical Chemistry is already taught as an independent branch of science to a larger or minor extent according to the reports of the International Symposium on Chemical Education held in Ljubljana (Jugoslavia) in 1977 [2]. In conclusion it is to be noted that a number of governmental as well as supra-governmental commissions and committees exist to deal with chemical education and it seems to me that it is the proper time to go on in this direction via our WPAC and relevant IUPAC committees as well as UNESCO commissions.

References 1. Berkeley, G. : A Treatise Concerning The Principles Of Human Knowledge. Dublin: J. Pepyat 1712 2. Farago, P. J. et al. : Chemical Education in Europe. London: The Chemical Society 1976 3. Malissa, H. : Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 271, 97 (1974) 4. Malissa, H . : A n a l . Chim. Acta 100, 5 (1978) 5. Weizs/icker, C. F. v. : Die Einheit der Natur, 2. Aufl. Mtinchen : C. Hauser 1971 Received October 18, 1978