EDUCATION IN PARENTHOOD Ester S. Buchholz Anne Addington

ABSTRACT: There are numerous reasons why curricula in parent education should be developed in universities and colleges today. These reasons are summarized and enumerated. An important question is whether, given a body of know1edge as well as social justification for parenthood courses, there is a sufficient number of interested students to enroll in such courses. A survey of high school students, college students, and P.T.A. members was conducted across a large metropolitan area. The results are that between two-fifths and one-half of the participants from the different groups are interested in pursuing as a minor in college, or as a subspecialty, course work in parenthood on a scientific and scholarly basis. Approximately one-fourth to one-third of the people from every group are prepared to pay for formal education in parenthood.

INTRODUCTION Slavson (1958) stated that parenthood is the one full-time profession for which there is no formal training. A similar point is made by Rheingold (1973), who also concludes that although parenthood requires a greater time commitment than most professions, it receives far less status or recognition. Part of this lack of recognition may come about because, unlike other professionals, parents have never received consistent formal training in their specialty. There are two major reasons why training for parents seems both pertinent and possible to implement now. For one, the need is great. The rapid change in the structure of society is giving parents more complex problems to cope with, yet less control over their families Dr. Buchholz is Assistant Professor in the School Psychology Program at New York University. Part of the research for this study was supported by two Dean Fund Development Grants, 1976, 1977. 242

Alternative Higher Education, Vol. 3(4), Summer, 1979

0361-6851/79/1400-0242$00.95

© 1979 Human Sciences Press

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(Anderson, 1975). Parents today seem to be without an internalized set of values to use for direction in raising their children (Kagan, 1975). Moreover, there is the theory that "parents rather than teachers, perform the major educational job in the nation" (Pines, 1975, p. 58). The second point, which relates to the possibility of structuring and implementing such a program, is that paradoxically there is a solid body of knowledge on child development, on the effects of parent-child interactions, and on children's learning, coping and perceptual styles. The literature on child development and related areas is too extensive to cite more than a sample of it here. Suffice it to say that since 1905 when Freud (1962) focused on the psycho-sexual stages of development, theorists and researchers have compiled information on developmental priorities (Freud, A., 1963), cognitive development (Piaget, 1926), motoric and language development (Gesell, et al., 1974), social development (Erikson, 1950), the influence of parent-child relationships Mahler, et al., 1975; Brody, 1956, Escalona, 1968), separation (Bowlby, 1969; Mahler, 1968), and adolescence (Blos, 1962). Popular books and short courses on child rearing are available and represent an attempt to fill the gap between those who have scientific data about children and those who deal with children from birth on a daily basis. Research on primers for parents indicates that almost every parent uses at least one such publication and a large percentage read as many as five (Clarke-Stewart, 1978). It seems, however, that in order to aid parents to cope with the complexity of our society as well as to try to reverse the trend in increasing problems of child-abuse, excessive drug and alcohol use, teenage pregnancy and suicide, which often seem to be linked to the quality of parental care (Copel, 1973), more than "Sunday supplement" training is necessary. In fact ClarkeStewart (1978) points out that: it is always up to the parent to evaluate the individual situation, to interpret the expert's advice, and then to make a decision. Let's help parents make decisions, not offer them either impractical platitudes or simple minded ploys (p.369).

Hobbs, et al. (1975) who studied children and their problems in an attempt to improve classification systems, stress the inadequacy of all programs and facilities to aid child-rearing. The 1975 White House conference for children also realized the need to enhance knowledge in this area and passed a motion to support and recognize parent education (White, 1977). No mention of any specific program to train parents is made. Nevertheless, it seems that the most effective

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support parents could receive is through the benefit of our scientific and clinical information about children-their development, their environment, their psychology and their health. Some of the reasons why a program in parenthood seems to fit with the current zeitgeist are as follows: 1. To put knowledge about children into the hands of people who are

responsible for their development. 2. To give recognition and status to parenthood. 3. To offer knowledge that might have ramifications in preventing and controlling such problems as child abuse and teenage pregnancy. 4. To respond to community needs and desires for instruction in parenthood and child development. 5. To instruct parents on how to re-evaluate their role as parents, which may include increasing their involvement as teachers of their children. 6. To help would-be parents to become more aware of the multidimensional changes required of them. Knowledge of the many developmental, socio-economic and behavioral challenges to their existing life-patterns, m~y make for a more informed and realistically committed parent group. 7. To offer to the scientific community a chance to deal directly with parents in a framework which should provide opportunities for further research and for facilitating preventative health measures.

PROBLEM STATEMENT There appear to be sufficient societal needs for programs of study in parenthood. Moreover, as of 1976 there were 41 colleges and universities offering a parent education course as part of their general curriculum (Kerckhoff, Ulmschneider, and Adams, 1976). The question remains whether there is a population which is interested enough to undertake such a program of study even though it involves tuition charges. That people seek guidance in this area is attested to by the fact that they buy the "how-to" books and attend the "how-to" courses. Would people be equally interested in more scholarly and comprehensive study? Would they be willing to take a series of courses that would lead to a specialty in parent education regardless of whether they were or were not parents? The purpose of this study was to survey parents and future parents as to their interest in such training. The training envisioned were

ESTER S. BUCHHOLZ AND ANNE ADDINGTON

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courses that could be taken as a minor by undergraduates or as an additional specialty by graduate students from any type of program. We anticipated some degree of interest by all groups, but we did not know whether this interest would be consistent across groups or if there would be sufficient numbers of people interested to warrant development of university courses and program specialties. A representative group of high school, college students and parents of elementary school children (ages 5-11) were surveyed with a questionnaire designed to tap their interest in course-work in parenthood.*

METHODOLOGY Cluster sampling, using a random number table, was used. The college clusters were randomly selected from a list of all undergraduate colleges in New York City's five boroughs. In this way people representing varying socio-economic levels and family situations were tapped. The high school clusters were randomly selected from those public schools with 50% or more of their students reading at and above grade level as published in the October, 1975 N.Y.S. Board of Education "Pupil Reading Achievement in New York City." The elementary school P.T.A. groups were randomly selected from those public schools having 50% of their students at and above grade level as listed in the August, 1975 N.Y.C. Board of Education "Sixth Annual Ranking of Schools by Reading Achievement." The cuttoffin terms of reading ability insured that people responding were more likely to make up a potential college population. Letters explaining the research project were sent to the Dean of students of each college, the principal of each high school, and the president of each parent association. Specific arrangements for data collection were made final in follow-up telephone calls. In order to gain access, 11 colleges, 20 high schools, and 29 P.T.A. groups, were contacted. In some cases where the school absolutely refused cooperation-17 in all-the next random number was used. The reasons for refusing cooperation ranged from "no time," "we're inundated with these research requests," to "our students aren't able to answer these questions." The total number of schools visited was 43. It was decided that the most comprehensive sampling would occur if students were selected as they mingled in the hallways and cafeterias. In some cases, to complete the sample, students were selected from a class in session. P.T.A. members were asked to fill in the questionnaire just prior to their regularly scheduled meeting. The questionnaires were filled out and collected immediately for all clusters except three P.T.A. clusters which were mailed and returned. The sample population totals 424 people. For each analysis only cases for which the pertinent information is complete are included. These are defined as valid cases. *Questionnaire available upon request from the senior author.

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ALTERNATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION

RESULTS Of the total 424 people, 35.8% (152) were males and 64.2% (272) were females. Without the addition of the P.T.A. members 45.8% were male and 54.2% were female. The P.T.A. sample true to traditional cultural expectations contained far more females than males. Table 1 describes the distribution of our sample. The analysis of the independent variables for the high school group is presented first. The income distribution of high school groups approximates a normal curve (Table 2). Yet the high school group has more missing income data than any other group. Presumably they are not as informed. The median age of high school students was 16 and three quarter years. Six people were 14 and four people were 19 or older. The distribution for sex shows that 43.4% of the students were males and 56.6% were females. Five high school students said they Table 1 Distribution of Sanp1e

High School

College

P.T.A.

Total

Sarrple

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Male

72

43.4

64

48.9

16

12.6

152

35.8

Female

94

56.6

67

51.1

111

87.4

272

64.2

166

100.0

131 100.0

127

100.0

Total

Males

Females

Total

High School

17.0%

22.2%

39.2%

College

15.0

15.8

30.8

3.8

26.2

30.0

35.8

64.2

100.0

P.T.A. Total

424* 100.0

*Out of the 424 in the total sarrple. 16 cases were incarplete and not usable in any tabulation.

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Table 2 Incone Distribution of a Random Selection of High School Students in New York City Area

Absolute Freq.

Adjusted Freq. (Pct)

CUllIUllative Freq. (Pct)

lhder 7,500

22

14.3

14.3

7,501-15 ,000

52

33.8

48.1

15,001-25,000

52

33.8

81. 8

25,001-50,000

22

14.3

96.1

Above 50,000

6

3.9

100.0

Total Valid

154*

IncOllE

100.0

*Out of 174 high school questionnaires, 154 had usable inCOllYi! data.

were parents, one claiming three children and another claiming four. Looking again only at valid cases, 111 high school students plan to attend college and 61 do not. That is 64.5% ofthe sample intend to go to college. Describing the type of college they plan to attend, 68.9% check city or state colleges, 24.8% check private college, and 6.2% check other. The dependent variables encompass the interest of the sample in becoming parents and receiving formal instruction in parenthood. Only 15 (9%) absolutely wish to have children soon. Those that think they might want children, total 112 or 67.1%. Those who have not made up their minds are 34 or 20.4%, whereas 6 or 3.6% are certain that they do not want children. Of the total high school group interviewed, 64 or 37.9% wish information related to being a parent and 105 or 62.1% do not. Twenty-four students or 13.9% would like to take parenthood courses as a minor, and 48 or 27.7% would prefer taking the courses as an added specialty. In total. 41.6% (72) would like such courses in a college or university. Four or 2.3% feel very interested, but also that it is too late. Those that are interested but not too seriously, total 74 or 42.8%. Those who are definite in their lack of interest-they could not care less-number 23 or 13.3%. As to whether high school students would consider paying for such course, 54 or 32.0% say yes and 115 or 68.0% say no. Forty-three (25.7%) were interested enough to

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request a brochure and 38 (21.8%) put their address down in order to receive one. That meant 124 (74.3%) did not request a brochure and 136 (78.2%) did not put down their addresses. Pearson correlations were performed in order to test the relationships between the independent and dependent variables and to determine the degree of overlap between certain of the dependent variables. The level of significance used throughout this study was .05. While correlations were low, many were significant and most were significant at the .01 level or below. Based on these significant, but admittedly low correlations, a number of conclusions can be drawn. The high schools' reading achievement scores were amongst the variables considered. As expected, the higher the reading score, the greater the intention to go to college (r=.20). Students who wished for children were more frequently the ones who wished for information about courses (r=.19) and who wished to take courses (r=.20). More female students wished for children, more certainly than male students (r=.17). More of the students who are willing to pay for the courses requested brochures (r=.38) and gave their addresses (r=.31). Requesting brochure information and giving the address are, however, primarily tapping the same group of students (r=.90). In our second sampling group there were 135 people coming from 10 different colleges. Again, frequencies are reported using the number of valid cases for a particular category. The income table for college students represents a positively skewed distribution (Table 3). The median age of the college sample is 21. There were 9 people 17 or younger and 21 people 29 years or older. Two people in the sample were 58 years old. Of this group 64 (48.9%) were males and 67 (51.1%) were females. There were more non-parents than parents in the group. One hundred thirteen people did not have children (83.7%) and 22 (16.3%) did. The numbers of children per parent ranged from 1 to 3 with 12 people having 2. Of the people who did not as yet have children 17 wish to have them soon and 77 were thinking they probably would be parents. Thirteen were undecided and three never intend to have them. Over a third of all the college sample, 50 (37.0%) wish for information about parenthood and less than two-thirds did not (83 or 61.5%). Almost half the college sample (65 or 48.9%) would like the courses given in a college or university as a minor or specialty. Most of this group, however, desire it as the specialty (56 or 42.1%). Seven people felt it too late (5.3%). Those with a less than serious interest numbered 49 (36.8%), there were 12 who had no interest (8.9%).

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Table 3 Income Distribution of a Random Selection of College Students In New Y01:k City Area Income

Absolute Freq.

Relative Freq. (Pet)

Cumnulative Freq. (Pet)

lhder 7,500

22

16.3

17.6

7,501-15 ,000

41

30.4

50.4

15 ,001-25 ,000

32

23.7

76.0

25,001-50,000

18

13.3

90.4

Above 50,000

12

8.9

100.0

Total Valid

125*

*Out of 135 college questiormaires, 125 had usable inecmc data.

Over half the group were willing to pay for these courses (71 or 53.8%). The rest were not (61 or 46.2%). An interest in receiving a brochure was expressed by 36 college students (28.6%) as compared to 90 (71.4%) who did not desire one. Thirty-one people (23%) put down information as to where to send the brochure. The balance 31 (23.0%) did not give this information. The correlations for the college group show that those who are older are much more likely to be parents (r=.75) and to have more children (r=.81). The older students were amongst the more interested to receive information about parenthood (r= .23). More females than males were parents in this group and also had more children. The parents in this group had a somewhat greater income (r=.16), and those with more children were earning more (r=.19). They also were more likely to wish to receive information on parenthood (r=.19), and were the ones most likely to request literature (r=.23). Students attending private institutions seemed somewhat more likely to wish to have children (r=.16). More females wish to take courses on a regular basis (r=.18). Those with children were more desirous of such courses (r=.19). Females (r=.18) and parents (r=.17) were most interested in course information. Those who wanted a brochure seemed to have the strongest wish for a child (r= .32) and wish for information (r= .30). The parent group whose children are reading above the median for

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ALTERNATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION

city elementary school pupils consisted of 12.6% males. It is important to note that the mean age of parents was 34.8; the ages ranging from 24 to 50. Eighty per cent of the parents were 30 or older. The men were amongst the oldest in the group. Income distribution for this group as for the high school and college sample approximated a normal curve (see Table 4). In this subsample, however, the greatest number had incomes between $15,001 and $25,000. For this group there is a very strong indication that parents were either very interested or not at all interested in taking courses. The response of 53 (41.4%) of the parents was yes they would like such courses, while 68 (53.1%) were definitely not interested. A small percentage, 7 parents (5.5%) were uncertain. Approximately one third, in this case 43 (36.4%), were willing to pay for such courses and 35 (30.7%) wanted to receive brochures. Approxim9tely one-fifth, 25 (19.1%) actually gave their addresses in order to receive information on courses if they should be given. It is necessary to note that none of those questioned were aware of any credit courses in parenthood at any college or university. Correlations were also performed within this group. The P.T.A. parents whose income was lowest showed a significantly greater ease in giving their addresses for brochures (r=.22). Those giving their addresses had children with lower reading scores (r=.30). In contrast, Table 4 Income Distribution of a Random Selection of P.T.A. Parents in a New York City Area

IncOllE

Under 7,500

Absolute Freq.

Adjusted Freq. (pct)

CunnJ1ative Freq. (pct)

8

6.7

6.7

7,501-15 ,000

33

27.7

34.5

15 ,001-25 ,000

58

48.7

83.2

25,001-50,000

17

14.3

97.5

Above 50,000

3

2.5

100.0

Total Valid

119*

100.0

*Out of 127 P.T.A. questionnaires, 119 had usable income data.

ESTER S. BUCHHOLZ AND ANNE ADDINGTON

251

more P.T.A. members with higher incomes said that they wished for information on courses (r=.26) and had children with higher reading scores (r=.35).

DISCUSSION Over two-fifths of the combined high school and college population seem to be seriously interested in taking credit courses in parenthood. Almost halfthe P T.A. group show a strong interest and more than half show an equally strong disinterest. The questions were designed to tap different levels of interest. Those who merely wished information were considered to be level one in interest, the least interested. Those who wished to take actual courses and also were willing to pay would be amongst the more interested. Those who actually gave their addresses for the brochure were considered to be very eager to pursue their interest. For those who expressed interest, the expectation was that there would be a greater number of mildly interested people than highly interested. The high school group responded in the predicted way. A little under two-fifths of the group wished for information and over two-fifths wanted to take courses as part of a college program. Less than a third were willing to pay and under one-fourth requested the brochure. Contrary to expectation although under two-fifths of the college students wanted information, almost one-half wanted courses as part of their college work and over one-half were willing to pay for the courses. Under a third gave their addresses for brochures. Within the P.T.A. group about one-third indicated serious interest in courses through their willingness to pay and one-fifth through their actually giving their addresses for information. This latter group were the parents with less income. The P.T.A. group and the high school group were most alike in terms of the patterns of response to the different types of questions. It seems for the college students, as the questions seemed less general and more specifically related to their experiences in going to school, they were more interested. The drop in percentages of all people to questions requesting addresses in order to receive brochures, is not as high as anticipated. College students are most willing to pay for courses even though their incomes are less than the other groups. The lower income may not, however, reflect their socio-economic level, but rather their desire to list themselves as at least semi-independent financially. In the high school group, unlike the other groups, there was no difference between the sexes in their desire to take courses in parenthood. In the nonparent groups, however, more females wished for children.

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ALTERNATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION

There may be two reasons for the lack of sex differences in the youngest age group. For one, societal changes in the expected role of men in the family may be more an influence on younger people. Confirming that is the fact that our P.T.A. sample still had an underrepresentation of men, only 12.6%, and their ages were predominantly over 30. This may reflect that they have not been as greatly influenced by women's liberation. The other reason may be connected to a different interest within the age groups. Younger people may be looking for ways to understand their parents, whereas older people may be seeing themselves in the parent role. In the latter case females would still be assuming the greater responsibility. A bit of evidence to support the second idea is that 4 high school students claimed interest, but said it was too late for their family or themselves to benefit from the courses. As stated, the expected response to the question requesting the address of the individual was that almost all would emphatically refuse to give this information. Surprisingly, 94 people (21.4%) of the total population were willing to give their addresses. Desire to immediately receive information on such courses was so great for some that in 50 cases they volunteered their names as well and were willing to lose anonymity. This finding is provocative in that it suggests that concern with invasion of privacy is not as generalizable as one might suspect. There was an inconsistency in our finding, Le., the higher income P.T.A. parents were most desirous of information, but not of giving their addresses, while the lowest income group was less desirous of information, but more likely to give their addresses. This may imply that with age and affiuence concern over anonymity grows, while in the lower income groups acquiescence to expectation may be more the norm. This mixed pattern was seen only in the P.T.A. group. For some, curiosity about parenthood is the greatest motivating factor. While the need for courses in parent education on a formal basis has been stressed, no research has been conducted to date to try to estimate whether there is a large enough population that would be interested in pursuing this area of study for academic credit. We found that a large number of people would choose parenthood as a course of study. In colleges and universities where instruction is given in training future parent educactors as well as coursework in parenthood, student interest and enrollment was found to be high (Kerckhoff, Ulmschneider and Adams, 1976). An important gap in the field is the organization of programs which will offer systemized study in the area of parenthood. This research begins to answer some questions raised. We asked a group of individuals from high school age through adulthood, representative of different social and ethnic groups, about their interest in

ESTER S. BUCHHOLZ AND ANNE ADDINGTON

253

parent education. More than one-third of our sample is seriously and consistently interested in taking college courses which would provide them with some scientific knowledge about parenthood. Adding to this the fact that a consistent one-third across all groups studied are willing to pay might give colleges and universities the incentive to organize credit-based programs for the study of parenthood.

REFERENCES Anderson, J. quoted in Newsweek, "The parent gap," September 22, 1975,48-56. BIos, P. On adolescence: A psychoanalytic interpretation. New York: The Free Press, 1962. Bowlby, J. Attachment and loss: 1. Attachment. London: Hogarth Press, 1969. Brody, S. Problems of mothering: Maternal influences during infancy. New York: International Universities Press, 1956. Clarke-Stewart, K. A. Popular Primers for Parents. American Psychologtst, April 1, 1978, 359-369. Copel, S. L. (ed.) BehaVIOr pathology of childhood and adolescence. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Erikson, Eric. Childhood and society. New York: Norton, 1950. Escalona, S. The roots of individuality: Normal patterns of development m infancy. Chicago: Aldine, 1968. Freud, A. The concept of developmental lines. In The psychoanalytic study of the child, Vol. 18. New York: International Universities Press, 1963. Freud, S. Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition, James Strachey (ed.) London: Hogarth Press, 1962. Gesell, A. & Amatruda, C. In Developmental Diagnosts, 3rd edition, Hilda Knoblech & Benjamin Pasamanick (eds.) New York: Harper & Row. 1974. Hobbs, N. Egerton, J. & Matheny, M. H. Classifying children: Summary of final report of the project on classification of exceptional children. In Children Today, 4 (8) July/ August, 1975. Kagan, J. quoted in Newsweek, "The parent gap," September 22, 1975, 48-56. Kerckhoff, F. G. Ulmschneider, A. & Adams, C. College and university programs in parent education. The Family Coordinator, 25(4), October, 1976, 131-133. Mahler, M. S. On human symbiosis and the vicissitudes ofindividualtion. Vol. 1, Infantile psychosis. New York: International Universities Press, 1968. Mahler, M. S. Pine, F. & Bergman, A. The psychological birth of the human infant. New York: Basic Books, 1975. Piaget, J. The language and thought of the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1926. Pines, M. Head head start. New York Times Magazine, October 26,1975,14,58-72. Rheingold, H. L. To Rear a Child. American Psychologtst. 28, 1973, 42-46. Slavson, S. R. Child-centered group guidance ofparents. New York: International Universities Press, 1958. White, B. L. Guidelines for Parent Education. Planning Education Conference. Michigan: September 29,1977.