59 FACTORS DETERMINING THE TEACHING
THE ATTRACTIVENESS
OF
PROFESSION IN ZIMBABWE
B.R.S. CHIVORE
This article analyses the factors influencing the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession in Zimbabwe. The findings are based on data collected from more than 200 non-graduate student teachers by means of a questionnaire, supplemented by documents and interviews. Among the 21 relevant factors listed in the questionnalre, those relating to salary, fringe benefits and working conditions were considered to have the greatest influence. In particular, benefits similar to those of comparable professions in the public and private sectors were identified as crucial. The author broadens the context of his conclusions by comparing the situation in Zimbabwe to that in other developing countries.
Abstract
- In diesem Artikel werden Faktoren untersucht, die die Attraktivität der Sekundarschullehrertätigkeit in Zimbabwe beeinflußen. Die Ergebnisse stützen sich auf Daten, die von mehr als 200 nichtgraduierten Lehrerstudenten anhand eines Fragebogens gesammelt und durch Dokumente und Interviews ergänzt wurden. Von den 21 in dem Fragebogen enthaltenen Faktoren erwiesen sich die als besonders einflußreich, die das Gehalt, betriebliche Vergünstigungen und Arbeitsbedingungen betreffen. Im einzelnen werden die die Lebenshaltung betreffenden Vorzüge, die vergleichbar wären mit denen anderer Berufssparten des öffentlichen und privaten Sektors, als besonders wichtig empfunden. Abschließend stellt der Verfasser seine Ergebnisse in einen weiteren Zusammenhang, indem er die Situation in Zimbabwe mit der in anderen Entwicklungsländern vergleicht. Zusammenfassung
Résumé - Cet article analyse les facteurs qui influent sur l'attrait de la profession d'enseignant du secondaire au Zimbabwe. Les résultats se basent sur les données fournies par le questionnaire que plus de 200 élèves-enseignants ont rempli, complétées par divers documents et interviews. Parmi les 21 facteurs pertinents énumérés dans ce questionnaire, ceux relatifs au salaire, aux compléments de salaire en nature et aux conditions de travail étaient considérés comme étant les plus importants. Les avantages matériels, en particulier, comparables ä ceux des autres professions du secteur public et privé, ont été identifiés comme cruciaux. L'auteur élargit le contexte de sa conclusion en comparant la situation du Zimbabwe ä celle d'autres pays en développement.
InternationaI Review o f Education - Internationale Zeitschrift f ü r Erziehungswissenschaft Revue Internationale de Pédagogie X X X I V (1988), 59-78. All rights reserved. Copyright © by Unesco Institute f o r Education, Hamburg and Martinus N i j h o f f Publishers, Dordrecht.
60
Introduction This article is based on a study carried out by the author concerned with the recruitment and training of non-graduate secondary teachers in Zimbabwe since independence (Chivore 1985). Since that study, the author has produced other articles which covered such issues as pupils' perception of and attitude towards the teaching profession in Zimbabwe (Chivore 1986a), the reasons why people take up teaching as a profession in Zimbabwe, and teacher education in Zimbabwe - new strategies, problems and possible solutions (Chivore 1986b and 1986c). The present article attempts to give an overview of factors that determine the attractiveness, or lack of it, of the teaching profession in Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, as in most developing countries, professionally trained secondary teachers make a difference to what and how children learn. If professionally trained teachers are crucial to the country's secondary education system, so too are the factors that determine whether or not the secondary teaching profession is 'attractive'. Information relating to factors that determine the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession is essential because it provides more insight into problems of secondary teacher shortage in the country. Such factors might relate to the recruitment, training or deployment levels of the secondary teaching profession. Data was collected by using ä questionnaire filled in by student teachers who were at college and those teaching in various secondary schools throughout the country. Other documented information was collected from the Ministry of Education, teachers' training colleges, the Associated College Centre of the University of Zimbabwe and through formal and informal discussions held with officials at these institutions. It is useful to know these other sources of data lest the impression is created that the observations made and conclusions reached were based only on information gathered through the questionnaire.
Analysis of Information Collected Using the Questionnaire In all, 225 non-graduate secondary student teachers took part. On the questionnaire, non-graduate secondary student teachers were given a list of 21 factors likely to determine the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession in Zimbabwe. Student teachers rated these factors on a five-point scale as follows: 1. not attractive 2. less attractive 3. somewhat attractive
61 4. more attractive 5. most attractive 6. don't know. There was also a second section in which student teachers were requested to put in rank order the 21 items provided.
Analysis of Results Out of 21 factors suggested, 15 were rated as relatively important in determining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession in Zimbabwe (Table 1). This means 6 factors scored less than 50 per cent and were not considered for further analysis. In rank order, factors which were rated as crucial in determining whether or not secondary teaching as a profession was attractive in Zimbabwe were: salaries relative to those in the public and private sector for secondary teachers, more opportunities for further education through the B.Ed. course for those who join the secondary teaching profession, adequate and decent accommodation for secondary teachers, adequate buildings and facilities at secondary schools, paying students allowances or salaries in the first and third years under the four-year training pattern, improved promotion prospects for secondary teachers, same conditions of service for all secondary teachers, improvement in training facilities, teaching socialism in secondary training colleges as a basis for teacher education, integration of study with 'education for production' (i.e. agricultural work) in secondary training colleges, pay for women teachers while on maternity leave, reduction of class sizes to between 25 and 29 pupils per class, improvements in sickness benefits, improvement in pensions and improvement in leave conditions (Tables 1 and 2). It may be added that, when the author carried out a pilot study in 1978, it was established that the most important concern relating to secondary teachers' conditions of service was salaries. Thus the highest-ranked factor in determining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession was that salaries relative to those in the public and private sector for secondary teachers would make the secondary teaching profession attractive. There were also other factors that could be classified as belonging to the salaries category. These were: paying students allowances or salaries in the first and third years under the four-year teacher training pattern, pay for women teachers while on maternity leave, improvement in sickness benefits, improvement in pensions, improved promotion prospects for secondary teachers and more opportunities for further education through the B.Ed. course for those who start a secondary teaching career. Out of the 15 factors rated as relatively important in deter-
62 Table 1. Factors that Determine the Attractiveness o f Secondary Teaching as a Career in Zimbabwe Not attractive
Attractive
N
Olo
N
°70
Compulsory teaching before initiai training
163
72.5
59
26.3
Training students on the job using the four-year pattern
115
51.0
110
Paying students allowances in first and third years under four-year pattern
27
12.0
Admitting students who prove competent without C S C / G r a d e l 1 qualifications
144
More opportunities for further education through B.Ed. course for those who join a secondary teaching career Participation in eommunity activities, e.g. adult education by secondary training colleges Teaching socialism in secondary training colleges as a basis for teacher education Improvement in training facilities, e.g. tapes, radios, videos, TVs Teachers identifying with the community they serve Same eonditions of service for all teachers Salaries relative to those in public and private sectors for secondary teachers
Total
Rank
i~. N
%
3
225
100
20
48.8
--
225
100
16
191
84.9
7
225
100
5
64.0
77
34.3
4
225
100
19
17
7.6
205
91.3
3
225
100
2
128
57.0
90
40.0
7
225
100
18
45
20.1
175
77.7
5
225
100
"9
40
17.8
178
79.2
7
225
100
8
121
53.7
104
46,2
--
225
100
17
42
18.6
180
80.0
3
225
100
7
4
1.7
221
48.2
--
225
100
1
Adequate and decent accommodation for secondary teachers
18
8.0
203
90.2
4
225
100
3
Improvement in pensions
73
32.3
140
62.2
12
225
100
14
Integration of study with 'education for production' (i.e. agricultural work) in secondary training colleges
57
25.4
162
72.0
6
225
100
10
107
47.6
116
51.6
2
225
100
15
Deeent and adequate buildings and facilities at secondary schools
25
11.2
196
87.2
4
225
100
4
Pay for women teachers on maternity leave
58
25.8
160
71.1
7
225
100
11
Reduction of class sizes to between 25-29 pupils
59
26.2
158
70.2
8
225
100
12
Improvement in sickness benefits
63
28.0
152
67.5
10
225
100
13
173
76.8
50
22.2
2
225
100
21
38
16.9
186
82.6
1
225
100
6
Improvement in leave conditions
Recruitment of expatriates to reduce teacher shortage Improv¢d promotion prospects for teachers
63 Table 2. Factors Arranged According to Number of First Places A warded in Ranking Section o f Questionnaire N
°70
Salarics relative to those in public and private sectors for secondary teachers
Rank
56
25.0
1
Adequate and decent accommodation for secondary teachers
43
19.3
2
More opportunities for further education through B.Ed. coursc for those who join a secondary teaching career
40
18.0
3
Decent and adequate buildings and facilities at secondary schools
25
11.0
4
Paying students allowances/salaries in the first and third years under the four-year pattern
5
15
6.6
Improved promotion prospects for secondary teachers
9
4.0
6
Same conditions of service for all secondary teachers
8
3.9
7
Teaching socialism in secondary training colleges as a basis for teacher ¢ducation
5
2.3
8
Improvement in training facilities, e.g. tapes, radios, videos, TVs
4
2.2
9
Reduction of class sizes to between 25-29 pupils
3
1.6
10
Integration of study with 'education for production' (i.e. agricultural work) in secondary training colleges
3
1.2
11
Improvement in pensions
2
1.0
12
Improvement in sickness benefits
2
1.0
13
Pay for women teachers while on maternity leave
2
0.9
14
Improvement in leave conditions
2
0.8
15
Teachers identifying with the community they serve
I
0.4
16
Training students on-the-job using the four-year pattern
17
1
0.3
Participation in community activities, e.g. adult education by secondary training colleges
I
0.2
18
Admitting students who prove competent without CSC/Grade 11
1
0.1
19
Compulsory teaching before initiai training
1
0.1
20
Recruitrnent of expatriate teaehers to reduce teacher shortage
1
0.1
21
225
100.0
Total
mining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession, seven, that is, nearly half, and a third of the original 21, had something to do with financial remuneration or salaries. Under the salaries or remuneration category, one factor needs further comment. This factor deals with more opportunities for further education through the B.Ed. course for those who join the secondary teaching profession. It may be argued that this has nothing to do with salaries or remuneration, but relates to prestige. The author believes that in Zimbabwe at least, and this might hold true for most developing countries, this factor belongs to the salaries category. This is because further academic or professional education in Zimbabwe is the main vehicle for socio-economic advancement for self and family. The B.Ed. qualification is considered in relation to the financial and material rewards that go with it. The higher the academic
64 and/or professional attainment, the brighter the chances for whoever attains that education or profession to obtain a 'good' job paying a relatively or comparatively 'good' salary. In Zimbabwe, the desire to do the B.Ed. course is tied up with the knowledge or conviction that this will improve salary scales as weil as promotion prospects, and hence the status that goes with having more money. Since independence, it has become very rare for non-graduate secondary teachers to be appointed permanent headmasters or education officers. The second category of factors rated as determining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession could be described as school deployment conditions. This category would include" adequate and decent accommodation for secondary teachers, adequate buildings and facilities at secondary schools, and reduction of class sizes to between 25 and 29 pupils per class. A point of clarification is needed with regard to the last factor. It may be argued that a small drift in the teacher/pupil ratio from 30 to between 25 to 29 makes little or no difference. This cou!d be true in other countries. In Zimbabwe it makes a lot of difference, because the general officially quoted teacher/pupil ratio of 1"30 is a minimum. In other words, a class should have at least 30 pupils. In reality however, classes go as far as 35 pupils each, if not more. In practice, a class of between 25 and 29 pupils is a big improvement from classes which have (1986) 35 or more pupils in each. The third category could be described as concerned with training college pedagogy. This category includes: integration of study with 'education for production' in secondary training colleges, teaching socialism in secondary training colleges as a basis for teacher education and improvement in training facilities at training colleges. The fourth category was concerned with conditions of service for secondary teachers. These comprise improvement in leave conditions and~the same conditions of service for all secondary teachers. The latter factor can also be classified under the 'salaries' category. This is because in Zimbabwe, conditions of service for teachers affect the promotion prospects and financial allowances for teachers. It was considered vital to try to establish to what extent salaries determined the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession in-order to obtain more information as to how the problem of secondary teacher shortage can be tackled in Zimbabwe. But it would seem that salaries as a factor determining the attractiveness of the teaching profession in general is not unique to Zimbabwe. It became necessary therefore to refer to findings in other countries, particularly developing African countries. Secondly, it was necessary to establisla salaries paid to non-graduate secondary teachers and to compare these salaries with those of people with similar academic qualifications and years of training in both the public and the private sector. Third-
65 ly, it was useful to consider other factors rated as important in determining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession, particularly accommodation, equipment, facilities and conditions of service.
How far Salaries Determine the Attractiveness of Teaching In both developed and developing countries, the literature suggests that salaries are probably the most important factor in determining the attractiveness of the teaching profession. It is relevant to cite a few examples especially from the developing countries. A Unesco conference on the status o f teachers held in 1966 reported (ILO/Unesco, 1984, p. 4 2 ) : Amongst the various factors which affect the status of teachers, particular importance should be attached to salary, seeing that in present world conditions other factors such as the standing or regard accorded them and the levels and appreciation of the importance of their functions, are largely dependent, as in other comparable professions, on the economic position in which they are placed. An ILO Report (1978, p. 3) noted: 'The remuneration which a society awards to the members of its teaching profession reflects the importance which that society attaches to the profession, in itself and in comparison with that which it accords to other professions and occupations.' The Report continued (p. 103): 'Inadequate pay levels affect recruitment to, and stability within the profession and create frustration which may give rise to militancy and even a decline in professional standards. All these factors adversely affect the performance of the education system.' Kelsall (1970, p. 116) wrote: 'All those who have undertaken empirical studies o f attitudes towards teaching as a career, are convinced that salary improvement relative to alternative opportunities is perhaps the most important single requirement in attracting more young people of the right educational attainment.' In Malawi, in 1973, the Education Plan reported that 70 per cent of secondary teachers at that time were expatriates. One of the main factors why Malawian nationals did not want to become secondary teachers was low salaries. Hence this plan recommended a review of the salary structure as an inducement for the attraction and retention of better qualified Malawians into the profession. The plan (1973, p. 40) stated: There seems to be some justification for a revision of salary structure of teachers if the system is to attract and retain appropriately qualified and motivated personnel. At present, teaching is considered as a 'last resort job'. This image must be
66 removed if the system is to provide the necessary and effective substructure on which the social and economic development of the country must be based. In his studies on Nigeria, Nwagwu (1981) discovered that when conditions of service, which included salaries, were improved, secondary school pupils' attitude towards joining the teaching profession improved. He found that whereas in 1972, 23.3 per cent o f secondary school leavers wanted to enter primary teaching, in 1977 the percentage had increased to 50. This was after implementing the Udoji Commission recommendations, which among other things included improved salaries offered to primary teachers. Nwagwu concluded (p. 85): 'Attitudes o f secondary school students in Nigeria towards teaching in primary schools show that improved conditions of service have had some significant favourable impact on students' interest and attitudes patterns.' Abangma (1981) in his studies carried out in English-speaking Cameroon found that among his respondents salaries were rated as the most crucial single factor in attracting candidates into and retaining those already in the teaching profession. Abangma noted (p. 285): When talking with teachers about their profession, one regularly heard complaints about their salaries. Over 80 teachers used the space at the end of the questionnaire booklet to complain about their financial position, and particularly at the differences in salaries between government teachers and voluntary agencies teachers. This, with poor conditions of service, late payment of salaries (ranked among the first four places), poor housing, and a sense of isolation for the majority of teachers in the rural areas, accounts for the low morale in the schools. Abangma found a relationship between teachers' low morale as a result o f poor conditions and performance in terms o f accepting new ideas, especially those ideas relating to change in the curriculum. Those who had low morale did not readily accept new curriculum changes. Abangma (p. 286) concluded: Cameroon's (possibly all Africa's) greatest problem in the field of primary teacher education is not that of raising the quality of its initial training, but keeping its teachers in the field interested, active, and efficient. In this context, it is interesting to note that the first three ranked items deal with the teacher's financial and social difficulties rather than with educational or professional inadequacies within the system. A joint ILO/Unesco Committee Report of 1982 showed that in six out of 32 countries and regions covered, secondary school teachers at the start of their career in 1980 received salaries which were ten per cent less than the average earnings in manufacturing industry. These countries were Bangla-
67 desh, The German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Israel, Japan and Pakistan. In the same report 19 countries provided information comparing teachers' salaries with salaries in the private sector. Out of 19, 11 countries stated that teachers' salaries were lower than those paid to people with comparable qualifications in the private sector, particularly industry. These 11 countries were: Cameroon, Colombia, Finland, Inäia, Italy, Jamaica, Kenya, Spain, Sri Lanka, Thailand and the United States. In addition, 22 countries provided information on levels of teachers' salaries compared to salaries of people with comparable qualifications in the public sector. In 9 of the 22 countries, teachers enjoyed salaries comparable to those paid to people in the public sector. These 9 were: Bangladesh, Chile, Egypt, Jamaica, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Spain and Venezuela. In a similar number (9) of countries, teachers enjoyed relatively better salary treatment in comparison to their counterparts in the public service. These countries were: Bulgaria, Cameroon, Cyprus, Finland, Japan, Kenya, Malta, Mexico and Papua New Guinea. In the remaining four countries, Colombia, Guyana, Nicaragua and Peru, teachers experienced relatively unfavourable salary conditions compared to their counterparts in the public sector. In Peru, teachers are said to be among the lowest paid groups in the public service: hence the unattractiveness of the teaching profession in comparison to other jobs in both the public and the private sector in that country. The above examples indicate that there are differences between salaries paid to teachers in comparison to salaries paid in the public and private sectors in different countries. The question is: to which group do teachers in general, and secondary teachers in particular, in Zimbabwe belong?
Seeondary Teachers' Salaries and Salaries in the Public Sector in Zimbabwe
When comparing non-graduate secondary teachers' salaries and salaries of people working in the public sector, it should be remembered that within the teaching profession in Zimbabwe, and more so before 1986, some teachers belonged and still belong (1986) to the public sector. These are teachers employed by the government. The vast majority of teachers, however, were employed in government-aided schools, which means they were not civil servants. In 1986, however, it was announced that all teachers in Zimbabwe were to become civil servants, starting in 1987. Whether government-aided or government, for basic salary purposes, depending on level and experience, there were no differences between the two systems. As will be seen later, there were differences with regard to promotion prospects and allowances. In order to understand the comparison between non-graduate sec-
68 ondary teachers' salaries and salaries in the public sector in Zimbabwe, occupations were divided into technical and non-technical categories.
Non-Technical Occupations and Non-Graduate Secondary Teachers" Salaries in the Public Sector To train as a non-graduate secondary or primary teacher in Zimbabwe, the basic academic requirements are 5 '0' levels, which should include a language. Information was collected on salaries paid to people in the public sector in Zimbabwe in occupations requiring at least 5 '0' levels, nongraduate secondary teaching included. Non-technical professions or occupations included: librarian, State-registered nurse, audit assistant, assistant examiner, tax assessor, occupational safety promotion officer, clerk, primary and secondary teacher, among a few others. In these non-technical occupations, non-graduate secondary teachers were and still are (1986) the best paid. In fact this is the case with most, if not all, non-technical occupations requiring similar academic qualifications and a similar number of years of training. It can be concluded therefore that, as far as non-technical occupations are concerned, (1986) in terms o f salary alone, non-graduate secondary teachers not only compared favourably but were among the best paid in the public service in Zimbabwe.
Technical Occupations and Non-Graduate Secondary Teachers" Salaries in the Public Sector Information available (Public Service salary scales 1986) shows that as far as basic salaries are concerned, non-graduate secondary teachers compared favourable with most, if not all technical occupations in the public service in Zimbabwe. In terms of basic as weil as maximum salaries, non-graduate secondary teachers were better paid than hospital equipment technicians, engineering technicians, dental technicians, radiographers, mechanical technicians, telecommunication technicians, and physical training technicians, among others. Following independence, which saw opportunities opening up for Africans with technical skills in the private sector, people with teehnical skills left government employment for the private sector where they were paid better salaries. In an attempt to stop people with technical skills from joining the private sector, the Government awarded a 15 per cent 'critical shortage allowance' over and above their basic salaries to people working in government who had technical skills. Non-graduate secondary teachers teaching
69 technical subjects did not receive this allowance. In that respect, therefore,
non-graduate secondary teachers" salaries compared unfavourably to salaries o f people with technical skills, requiring the same academic qualifications and a similar number o f years o f training within the public sector in Zimbabwe.
Non-Graduate Secondary Teachers" Salaries and Salaries in Private Sector Non- Technical Occupations It should be understood that the private sector also includes multinational companies. One of the problems facing researchers who want information on salaries paid to employees in the private sector in Zimbabwe is that private companies refuse to divulge the salaries paid. This problem is not peculiar to Zimbabwe. The ILO Report (1978, p. 21) highlighted this problem when it stated: 'In many countries it is difficult to obtain accurate figures on the remuneration in private industry on account of the individual element which frequently enters into pay negotiations in job categories comparable to teaching.' The ILO Report added (p. 25): Other problems facing any person seeking a factual basis for determining the relation between the remuneration of teachers and that of any other occupation include the difficulty of obtaining information on pay and that of comparing scale salaries which vary considerably according to the incremental step of the teacher concerned, with salaries in other occupations requiring training of a comparable level, which are frequently not scale-based. The present author relied on the goodwill of individual personnel officers working in such private companies. Hence the importance o f not giving the names o f these companies. At the same time, a comparison between teaching and occupations in the private sector in Zimbabwe, as in most other countries, is not easy. Even though the academic requirements might be similar, they are not necessarily the same. The same applies to the training itself. Training in teaching is not the same as training as a technician. The two, as will be seen, differ. Even work content, the conditions under which teaching is performed and working hours tend to differ from those of private companies, such as manufacturing industries, mining, etc. At the same time, the private sector consists o f different companies, some manufacturing, others service, which differ among themselves in salaries and conditions of service. It is important to bear this in mind because this affects the salaries offered. Information was gathered from five major companies in Zimbabwe. With slight variations, the salaries provided by and large represent salaries
70 paid to most employees working in the private sector at these levels in the whole country. In all these private companies, it wasf o u n d that salaries paid to non-technicai employees were relatively and comparatively better than salaries paid to non-graduate secondary teachers In Company A, the salary for Clerk I was between Z$580 and Z$825 per month, while that of Clerk II was between Z$670 and Z$1,095 per month. On the other hand, the salary for non-graduate secondary teachers was between Z$532 and Z$1,060 per month. It takes less time to train a clerk than to train a non-graduate teacher, and yet in this instance, non-graduate teachers, including secondary ones, were paid less than clerks.
Non-Graduate Secondary Teachers" Salaries and Salaries in Private Sector Technical Occupations As rar as technical occupations are concerned, the information gathered indicated that non-graduate secondary teachers were paid less than people in the private sector. In Company A, a technician with 5 '0' levels and four years' training was paid between Z$1,400 and Z$1,490 per month. The same applied to artisans or journeymen in this company. In Company C, technicians and journeymen were paid between Z$1,400 and Z$1,495 per month; they had similar academic qualifications and years of training to nongraduate secondary teachers. Company D had a comprehensive list of skills offered to Form IV Cambridge Senior Certificate (CSC) school leavers and initial starting salaries at the end of their training. Also, even people with two years of secondary education (Zimbabwe Junior Certificate - ZJC) such as underground miners and open-cast miners received more than nongraduate secondary teachers in terms of salaries. As for people with technical skills, these were not only paid more than non-graduate secondary teachers but more than professionally trained university graduates. This is because, while the starting salary for a technician in Company D was Z$1,452 per month, the maximum salary for a professionally trained university graduate was Z$1,212 per month, which was less than that of a technician. A senior education officer in 1984 received Z$1,407 per month, which was less than the starting salary of a technician in Company D referred to above. There is no doubt therefore that non graduate secondary teachers, as weil as senior education officers, were paid less than, and compared unfavourably with, people with technical skills in the private sector. However, it is not enough simply to compare the differences between nongraduate secondary teachers' salaries and those in the private sector without analysing why these differences exist.
71
Academic Qualifications and Salaries It is true that to train in technical trades in Zimbabwe, a person should generally have 5 '0' levels, which, on the face of it, is the same as nongraduate secondary teachers. But a closer examination o f these requirements reveals that within those 5 '0' levels candidates must have mathematics, English language and science. On the other hand, to train as a nongraduate secondary teacher, within those 5 '0' levels candidates should have a language, that is, English language, Shona language or Ndebele language. This means a candidate who is readily acceptable for training as a nongraduate secondary teacher is not readily acceptable for training in technical skills. In other words the majority of candidates who opt for non-graduate secondary teacher training would not qualify, and indeed, as things stand (1986), cannot qualify to train as technicians. In Zimbabwe the picture becomes even clearer, because pupils with the best '0' level results, which include mathematics, science and English, who cannot go for lower fourth form studies, prefer taking courses as apprentices. Moreover, in the study, the author found that pupils put technical skill training as the first group they aspired to amongst the occupations they could do straight after completing their Form IV C S C / ' 0 ' level studies. I f
Form I V CSC pupils wanted to train in technical skills, whereby the), would be paid better salaries than non-graduate secondary teachers as weil as senior officials in the Ministry o f Education, it goes without saying that one, if not the main, attraction f o r wanting to train in such technical skills was the salaryfactor. At the same time, to qualify for these attractive salaries, these Form IV CSC school leavers had to have the best CSC results. Warner, writing on the salary issue in Zimbabwe before independence, stated (1975, p. 10): It is unsavoury to bring to the fore that much sought after, talked about commodity, money. But if you want the best you must pay. In order to recruit people of the highest calibre, the salaries taust be highly competitive. This single factor, unpalatable as it may be to some, could stem the flow of persons to industry, stimulate competition and result in teaching becoming one of the most sought after professions.
In the present research it was established that Form IV CSC school leavers with 'good' '0' levels or CSC passes, which included English language, mathematics, and science, went for apprenticeship training courses (Chivore, 1986a). On the other hand, Form IV CSC school leavers with the minimum 5 '0' levels, which in the majority of cases did not include the stipulated mathematics, science and English language subjects, joined the non-graduate secondary teaching profession. It was found that people who
72 attained technical skills training were far better paid than people who became non-graduate secondary teachers. In addition, technical skills training was found to be more attractive (by Form IV pupils) than secondary teaching as a profession. This therefore means that in Zimbabwe there seems to be a relationship between the attractiveness o f the secondary teaching profession and secondary teachers" salaries relative to salaries paid in the public and the private sector.
The Relationship Between the Private Sector and the Public Sector In addition to such factors as the quality of academic grades at CSC/'0' levels, there are other factors which determine the salaries paid to people in the public and private sectors on the whole. Some of these factors may be beyond the scope of this paper but it is useful to note them briefly. Salaries paid to people at the lower levels, middle levels or sub-structures, public or private, reflect salaries at the top. In Company B, used in this study, the top employee was paid at least Z$80,000 per annum, he had two company cars and free furnished accommodation among other so-caUed fringe benefits. In contrast, the top civil servant in the Ministry of Education, the Permanent Secretary, was paid Z$36,000 per annum. Unti11984 Permanent Secretaries in Government ministries in Zimbabwe did not have official cars. As a matter of fact, the Managing Director as weil as the General Manager of Company B, received more than the Minister of Education, the Prime Minister and the President of the country in terms of basic salary in 1984. The author believes this to be the case even in 1986. In other words, while it is necessary or desirable to equate non-graduate teachers' salaries with the private sector, this cannot be done at the lower levels in Zimbabwe without reflecting them at the top. In any sector, wages depend on capital/labour ratios. Since independence the Ministry of Education has been receiving the biggest percentage of total government expenditure in each financial year (Table 3). This expenditure has been rising each year as a result of expansion in educational provision. Within the Ministry of Education, as in most developing countries, teachers' salaries have accounted for the biggest share of the Ministry's total expenditure (Table 4). Teachers' salaries, both primary and secondary, account for between 70 and 80 per cent of the Ministry of Education's yearly expenditure. Secondary teachers' salaries have been absorbing between 18 and 25 per cent of it. The reality of the situation is that in Zimbabwe teachers, as in most developing countries, are the most numerous professional group. In terms of hard cash, it seems impossible for the Government of Zimbabwe to pay non-graduate secondary teachers salaries
73 Table 3. Government Education Expenditure 1979/80-1983/84 in Z$ (millions)
Education: Recurrent expenditure Percentage of total recurrent expenditure Percentage of total GDP Education" Capital expenditure Percentage of total expenditure
79/80
80/81
81/82
82/83
83/84
119.0
216.9
305.6
390.7
455.9
12.3 4.7 3.4 6.2
19.1 6.8 6.1 9.3
21.0 7.6 12.2 10.8
21.4 8.7 25.5 13.6
N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.
Table 4. Percentages of Total Ministry of Education Expenditure Since Independence Showing Salary Percentagesfor Primary and Secondary Teachers
Administration Secondary teachers' salaries Primary and secondary teächers' salaries
79/80
80/81
81/82
82/83
83/84
4.3 24.7
3.2 17.8
2.8 17.8
2.3 18.5
2.3 18.9
80.3
73.6
73.4
74.5
72.9
Source: Ministry of Education Planning Division 1984. such as those paid in the private sector. As the I L O report (1978, p. 27) noted" ' I n a number of countries, however, sectorial market pressures sometimes lead private sector pay levels in certain occupations to levels which the public service cannot match without producing grave distortions in the whole of its pay structure.' In theory the Government can pay teachers the same salaries as those paid to the private sector. In practice, if that was done, with such a huge labour force as that o f teachers, the Government might find it impossible - in fact it might be bankrupted. The only other option open is to introduce some incentives in terms of allowances, particularly for teachers working in rural and remote areas.
Other Factors and the Non-Graduate Secondary Teaching Profession in Zimbabwe While salaries were found to be the most crucial factor in determining the attractiveness o f non-graduate secondary teaching, there were other factors found to affect adversely the attractiveness of the profession as weil. These, it will be recalled, included accommodation for secondary teachers, decent buildings and facilities at secondary schools and the same conditions of service for all secondary teachers. There is a distinction which requires clarification. First there are conditions of service and conditions under which nongraduate secondary teachers work - that is, working conditions. Working conditions would include accommodation, buildings and facilities at sec-
74 ondary schools among others, while conditions of service are those conained in the public service and Unified Teaching Service regulations.
4ccommodation and the Secondary Teaching Force The unprecedented expansion of secondary education resulted in an unprecedented demand for accommodation among secondary teachers. As in most things in a developing country such as Zimbabwe, the situation was most serious in the rural areas. Between 1981 and 1984, 55 new government secondary schools were opened. During the same period, a total of 1,080 teachers' houses were required for these newly opened schools. By the end of 1984, out of this total, 388 houses had been built, which meant that a deficit of 692 houses at a cost of Z$107,200 was still outstanding (Housing Requirements Planning Division 1984). In the same period (1981-1984), 854 new government-aided secondary schools were opened. A total of 11,928 houses were required for secondary school teachers at these schools. Out of this total, 1,247 houses were provided, which left 9,681 houses at a cost Z$72,607,500 still outstanding. Taking both government and government-aided secondary school housing requirements since independence together, 10,373 houses at a total of Z$83,679,500 were still not built at the end of 1984. The problem of teachers' accommodation was worst at rural day secondary schools that operated at primary schools (otherwise known as 'Upper Tops'). Of the newly opened secondary schools, 34 government and 396 government-aided ones, still operated from host primary schools by the end of 1984. In other words, these new secondary schools had not been moved to their separate and permanent sites but operated from and shared facilities with, (including accommodation) host primary schools. As the Annual Report (1983, p. 5) stated: As most of such schools are in the very remote areas which are, generally speaking, inaccessible and lacking in essential services like telephones, piped water, electricity and sometimes even radio broadcasts, it is very difficult to attract good teachers to such schools. Poor living conditions, paxticularly the absence of staff houses, have been the major deterrent. Writing on the same theme, but not from the viewpoint of Zimbabwe, Dove (1982, p. 8) noted: Isolation is often quoted as one of the penalties for the teacher in a remote rural school: it is a matter of wide separation not only from family and friends, but also
75 from familiar forms of entertainment, cultural . . . organisations, clubs and other leisure time activities, which are part and parcel of the urban life style. In the majority of cases in Zimbabwe, accommodation and facilities at these host primary schools were extremely poor. Inability to attract suitably qualified teachers, including non-graduate secondary student teachers, adversely affected the learning that went on at these schools. To quote again f r o m the Annual Report (p. 5): Deficiencies in equipment, qualified staff, experienced heads and heads of departments, and the lack of weil established traditions and ethos were weaknesses which Regional Directors wished to see made good as quickly as possible. These deficiencies and defects inevitably affected the range of subjects the schools could offer, as well as the quality of the teaching and learning that was going on in them. On the quality of facilities and equipment it noted (p. 4): Not only was there lack of specialist rooms, especiaily at 'Upper Tops' and rural day secondary schools, but there was also insufficient equipment and furniture for the pupils. Under such circumstances, theoretical rather than practical learning took place. Furthermore, the continued massive and rapid expansion of secondary education created unforeseen and unintended organisational and administrative problems. Dove on the same problem noted: Remoteness and isolation affect the quality and quantity of professional facilities available to teachers. Teachers in rural schools may be frustrated by the lack of classroom aids which in towns make their work easier, more varied and enriching •.. Inspectors and advisors may visit only rarely, requests for classroom materials may take months to process and even salaries may be paid irregularly or not at all. There is evidence in Zimbabwe f r o m the 1983 Report that when decent acc o m m o d a t i o n , as weil as facilities in the f o r m of specialist rooms, furniture, offices and equipment are provided, qualified teachers as well as nongraduate secondary student teachers were (and still are) attracted to these schools, and pupils' performance was relatively satisfactory. By the same token, secondary schools which do, or did not have such facilities failed to attract not only qualified teachers hut non-graduate secondary student teachers, with the result that pupils at these schools performed badly in their final examinations. In 1984, the results o f the Cambridge School Certificate were a m o n g the worst in the country's history. In all, 67,962 pupils sat for their examinations. O f these 12,881 pupils, that is 19.0 per cent, obtained at least five '0'
76 levels. The rest either got less than 5 '0' levels or failed completely. The majority of the failures were in these rural day secondary schools with poor accommodation, poor facilities, untrained or underqualified teachers - in short, schools which could not attract the 'right' type of teachers. According to the Zimbabwe SundayMail(March 10, 1985), 'among the causes of failure identified were that a number of untrained teachers had had to be engaged because of the critical shortage of trained teachers, particularly at secondary level and this number has been increasing since 1980.' The Prime Minister, commenting on these results (Times Education Supplement, London, 10 May 1985), remarked: 'It is hardly an exaggeration to describe the results as appalling. We cannot at all accept a level of performance whereby considerably less than 50 per cent of the candidates achieved the minimum number of passes or attained above average grades.' The important point to note is that the overwhelming majority of those who failed to obtain 5 or more '0' level subjects were from the newly opened rural day secondary schools which did not have qualified secondary teachers, which among other factors, was in turn a result of their poor accommodation for secondary teachers, and inadequate facilities and equipment.
Non-Graduate Secondary Teachers" Conditions of Service One of the factors rated as determining the attractiveness of the secondary teaching profession in Zimbabwe was the conditions of service. Nongraduate secondary teachers who took part in this research wanted the same conditions of service for all secondary teachers. At that time (1984) there were two categories of teachers in Zimbabwe: those who taught in government schools, who were civil servants, and those who taught in governmentaided schools, who were not civil servants. This categorisation of teachers affected the teachers' conditions of service. Appointment to teach in government schools went hand in hand with certain privileges and promotion prospects which did not apply to those teachers teaching in government-aided secondary schools. Non-graduate secondary teachers at government secondary schools were paid for being deputy headmasters, heads of department, housemasters; whereas non-graduates and all the secondary teachers at aided secondary schools were not remunerated for holding such posts. The irony of this situation was that the vast majority of the teaching force was in the aided system in the rural areas where they were needed most. As already noted, accommodation and other facilities were poor; while the majority of government teachers who enjoyed the privileges mentioned above were in the urban areas. If anything, positive discrimination should have been instituted in favour of those teachers in the rural areas.
77 On the contrary, secondary teachers in government schools were entitled to such privileges as car loans and housing loans guarantees while those in the aided secondary schools did not enjoy such privileges. In an effort to try to redress the imbalance between aided and government teachers, in 1984 the Government passed a resolution that both government and aided teachers could be remunerated for being deputy headmasters, housemasters and heads of departments. In 1986, it went even further. It announced as policy that all teachers whether in the aided or government system were to become civil servants enjoying the same privileges and conditions of service. At the time of writing (1986) the mechanics are being worked out for this Single Teaching Service, which should in practice be implemented in 1987. Initial reactions indicate that the overwhelming majority of teachers welcomed this move. It should go a long way in making the teaching profession more attractive for both those who intend to join the profession and those already in it.
Conclusion
Although it may not be possible directly to equate non-graduate secondary teachers' salaries with salaries paid in the private sector, improvements can be made, especially for those teachers working in the rural areas, by giving thema 'rural allowance' and improving not only their conditions of service but the overall conditions under which these teachers work. It would be unfortunate to invest large sums of money training people who, on finding opportunities in other fields, may leave the secondary teaching profession due to the difficult and unbearable conditions under which they work. Even if these secondary teachers remained in the teaching profession, their interest in and commitment to it might not be permanent. A low interest in, and a poor attitude towards, the secondary teaching profession might affect morale and stability within that profession. These conclusions may have relevance in developing countries elsewhere.
References
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