Trop Anim Health Prod (2009) 41:1017–1021 DOI 10.1007/s11250-008-9268-5
REVIEW PAPER
Gender issues in livestock production: a case study of Zimbabwe Anna C. Mupawaenda & Shingirai Chawatama & Plaxidia Muvavarirwa
Accepted: 4 October 2008 / Published online: 21 December 2008 # Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract The importance of main streaming gender issues in development programmes is now recognized by governments and development agents. This paper evaluates the role of gender in smallholder livestock production using Zimbabwe as a case study. It draws on several studies and assesses the gender dimension in terms of access and control, decision making and, division of labour. It is shown that for mainly traditional and historical reasons men continue to dominate livestock production although the situation is gradually changing. Men eclipse women in terms of ownership of more valuable stock, the making of decisions and the control of livestock production. This suggests that gender is important in livestock production and must be considered among other factors. The complexity of the system is noted but more gender disaggregated quantitative data is required if gender is to be effectively mainstreamed in livestock development programmes.
A. C. Mupawaenda (*) : S. Chawatama Institute of Development Studies, University of Zimbabwe, Box MP167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe e-mail:
[email protected] P. Muvavarirwa Education Services Centre, Women’s University in Africa, Upper East Road, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
Keywords Livestock ownership . Socioeconomic roles . HIV/AIDS . Access to resources . Decision making . Division of labour . Means of production
Background and context Over 900 million people suffer from under-nourishment partly due to insufficient agricultural production and uneven distribution of cereals and other staple food crops. Whilst many parts of the world experience overproduction there are serious food shortages in much of the developing world and these are critical in Southern Africa (African Farming 2003). These facts indicate that the availability of foods of animal origin will play a key role in the nutritional problems of the future. The oft reported emerging economic giants particularly China and India - will certainly create a much higher demand for livestock products as living standards improve in the 21st century. In Southern Africa agriculture is traditionally operated as a mixed enterprise comprising crop and livestock production. Agriculture has a very important role in the economy of Zimbabwe where it provides income for about 75 per cent of the national population. In the 1990s it contributed over 40 per cent of the national exports (Rukuni 2004). The smallholder farming sector comprises at least 70 per cent of the national population (Mudhara et al. 1995). Most of these are resource-poor farmers (CSO 1989).
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This sector is also characterised by heavy reliance on family labour, a generally poor resource base, little use of modern technology, underdeveloped infrastructure, weak institutional support and low production levels. About 90 per cent of smallholder farmers reside in areas of the country which suffer from low and erratic rainfall and soils that are predominantly loose and infertile granitic sands deficient in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur (Mataruka 1985). Arable land holdings are generally in the range of 2–5 ha and grazing is communal. Livestock production is affected by several factors in the tropics including social, economic, biological, political and management issues. For effective interventions to improve production the linkages between and among these factors have to be taken into account. Research efforts long concentrated on biological efficiency at the expense of socioeconomic aspects. Since the 1980s, however, there has been greater realization by governments and development agencies that effective strategies need to take account of the prevailing socioeconomic environment. Much can be achieved if developmental activities recognize women's potential and include women as an important part of their overall plans. Zimbabwe used to have a thriving livestock production sector. From the year 2000, government has implemented a policy of land redistribution whereby large tracts of land have been expropriated from mainly white commercial farmers for redistribution to landless blacks. This has resulted in a dwindling livestock population which in 2008 is estimated to be about 20 per cent of its former numbers (P Muvavarirwa pers. comm). The small scale sector now comprises the emerging commercial and communal farmers. The objective of this paper is to give an overview and discussion of gender roles in livestock production with particular reference to the smallholder sector in Zimbabwe. The paper draws on available studies and the experiences of the authors. The gender analysis focuses on: ! access and control; ! decision making; and ! division of labour. Access and control Women and men have different roles in livestock production. As a result they have access to different
rights and privileges in society as well as socioeconomic norms and values. Income accruing to women is believed to have a greater social welfare impact than that of men. This is because women in most societies are primarily responsible for household reproductive roles and thus to a large extent determine the quality of life and general welfare of all household members (UNDP 2002). This implies that engendering livestock development programmes will increase the possibility of improving the general welfare of the population. One study showed that there are spatial variations in the mean distribution of livestock ownership per district by gender (Chawatama et al. 2005). The general pattern indicated that men owned more cattle than women (Table 1). These findings are in keeping with earlier reports (Kusina and Kusina 1999). Discussions with women farmers revealed that since cattle provide draught power, ownership of or access to them is the entry point to agricultural production. Without cattle it would be difficult to engage meaningfully in agricultural production. Draught animals, mainly cattle, provide approximately 80 per cent of the power used for farming in developing countries (Pearson 1993). In contrast domestic fowl (chickens) are mainly owned by women. This means that any poultry project is likely to benefit women more than it is likely to benefit men. The results also indicate that there were more donkeys in Matobo than other areas. This could be due to the fact that donkeys can withstand harsh environmental conditions experienced in marginal areas like Matobo which is one of the most difficult areas for farming in Zimbabwe (in Agroecological Region V) Cattle are the main livestock species in the smallholder agricultural sector because of their multiple uses. The communal farmer regards cattle as more important than goats, sheep or poultry. Goats and sheep can be sold to raise cash, exchanged for other commodities or slaughtered to provide meat for the family. Home consumption can be high but real marketing to provide income is rare and thus profit from small ruminants and poultry remains low. One can nevertheless consider that as these animals do not benefit from any investment (in time or money) the little income they generate is all profit. The Cold Storage Commission sales absorb a large number of goats (80 000–100 000 a year) but the sale points are concentrated in the south of the country where three
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Table 1 Mean livestock ownership per district disaggregated by gender Species
District and gender Chikomba
Cattle Domestic fowl Donkey Goat Guinea fowl Pigeon Rabbis Sheep Turkey
Kadoma
Matobo
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
6.2 7.1 0.8 1.0 0.04 0.7 0.9 0.5 1.2
6.1 7.1 0.8 1.0 0.04 0.7 0.9 0.5 1.2
4.3 12.8 2.0 3.2 28 5.0
4.5 17.7 -
3.5 6.4 3.6 6.0 3.9 4.0
5.2 8.8 5.1 M 7.2 12.0 4.1 -
Source: Chawatama et al. 2005
quarters of Zimbabwe’s two million goats are found (Ndlovu and Sibanda 1991). In communal areas goats are mainly concentrated in the drier areas of the country (Agroecological Regions IV and V) whereas sheep are found in relatively wetter areas (Agroecological Regions II and III). Participatory rural appraisal approaches identified the relative importance of cattle for each district (Chawatama et al. 2005). Indications were that Matobo district engages in cattle marketing more than other areas (Fig. 1). Cattle production is seriously hampered by diseases in Kadoma hence the low sales proportion. Since many reports show that men dominate marketing of produce they therefore have more control in areas like Matobo than women (Francis 2002; Nyapokoto 2005; Chawatama et al. 2005). These findings also confirm the multipurpose role of cattle that makes them a central and vital livestock species in agricultural production.
production and is the chief decision-maker. Most studies indicate that men are predominantly heads of households (Chawatama et al. 2005; Francis 2002). Up to 90 per cent of households have been found to have males as their head. The findings also established that the majority of households headed by women were composed of widows. Most male household heads, however, are non-resident and employed formally in urban areas thereby increasing the workload and responsibilities of women.
100%
Milk Draught Meat Sales
90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
Decision making Zimbabwe is a patriarchal society. Men are traditionally the heads of the household. The farming unit is the household of which the primary aim is satisfying family food requirements and selling whatever surplus arises. Men are providers and decision-makers (Nyapokoto 2005). Previous studies have confirmed that resources are managed differently between the sexes (Daniels 2008). This means that the one who is head of the household has control over the means of
40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Chikomba
Kadoma Matobo District
Fig. 1 The relative importance of cattle in each district
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Table 2 Livestock related responsibilities (per cent within farming households in Nharira, Chikomba district, Zimbabwe Activities
General livestock management Milking cows Feeding calves Transporting milk to market Harvesting crop residues Transporting crop residues Mean
Labour source Men
Women
Children
Hired
46.2 33.3 10.3 17.9 55.3 50.0 35.3
5.1 2.6 48.7 10.3 13.2 10.5 15.1
0.0 2.6 7.7 5.1 13.2 7.9 6.1
48.7 61.4 33.3 66.7 13.2 41.6 41.6
Source: Chawatama et al. 2005
In addition to carrying out household chores and tilling the land the role of women in the communal or resettled areas has remained obscure. As head of the family men traditionally bought and owned the cattle. Historically, the numbers of cattle they had followed by the number of wives married judged a man’s wealth. As the world progressed into the industrial phase, however, men sought employment in urban areas and the women who remained behind assumed the head’s role. They had to raise children as well as livestock (IDS 2003). Despite these changing roles wives nonetheless remained subjects of their husbands as they merely worked on their behalf. Women still could not own livestock except for the cow the woman received (lobola) during the marriage of her daughter. Over time society began to accept a woman’s ownership of a few cattle and one or two goats. Men have been found to control marketing of produce and therefore use of the proceeds (Nyapokoto 2005).
Division of labour Agriculture is mainly comprised of three major resources which have to be managed successfully
for optimum production. These are land, labour and capital. Agriculture in Zimbabwe’s smallholder sector as in many areas in southern Africa is dependent on low levels of mechanization (Chawatama et al. 2003). This means that all the work has to depend on human and animal power. Large households, therefore, present a reservoir of labour. Labour availability has a direct impact on agricultural productivity including livestock production. In Africa in particular deaths and illness consequent on HIV/AIDS have resulted in a massive reduction of the labour pool. World Bank economists conservatively estimate the impact on countries with high HIV/AIDS rates as experiencing a loss of 1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) growth each year (UNDP 2002). Zimbabwe has one of the highest HIV/AIDS infection rates in the world (UNICEF 1999; GOZ 2004). Women are mostly caregivers for families ravaged by HIV/AIDS. This negatively affects their performance in livestock production. There is need for studies to quantify this impact. Few detailed studies have been undertaken on division of labour in livestock production. The main reason could be the complexity of the smallholder farming unit which comprises an integrated croplivestock system and off-farm activities. The available
Table 3 Division of labour based on gender Gender Major roles Boys Cutting firewood; milking; land preparation; herding animals Women Household chores (cooking cleaning etc); gardening; weeding; threshing maize and groundnuts; selling grass and other small items Men Land preparation; community meetings; harvesting and threshing maize Source: adapted from Nyapokoto 2005
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studies mainly report, however, that men are involved in “outside” work while women carry out most of the household work (Francis 2002; Nyapokoto 2005). A study of smallholder dairy farming enterprises (Francis 2002) found that men were mainly involved in herding cattle, milking and transporting milk for sale whereas women mainly concentrated on feeding the animals. Both men and women, however, attended meetings and training workshops on dairy production. Men spend about twice the time on dairy activities compared to women (Table 2). Of note is that men completely dominate the marketing of milk which is indicative of their control of the financial affairs of the enterprise. It has to be noted, however, that women have additional tasks that include cleaning homesteads, rearing children and cooking. Women in the majority of societies are primarily responsible for household roles hence to a large extend determine the quality of life and general welfare of household members (UNDP 2002). Most studies have shown that most of the work is done by women and boys in the dry season. Men are, however, expected to plough in the fields, plant crops and harvest them (Nyapokoto 2005). Men have more fieldwork in the rainy season (Table 3).
Conclusions This review demonstrates that men dominate livestock production in Zimbabwe mainly due to societal customs and norms. There is need for further research on quantifying data on the role of women in livestock production including control, contribution and ownership. The complexity of the farming unit in the smallholder sector presents challenges in carrying out detailed studies. The paucity of gender disaggregated data on livestock production has not helped development planners and policy makers to take sufficient account of gender in their programmes, whether at formulation, implementation or evaluation.
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