Guidelines for the D e v e l o p m e n t and E v a l u a t i o n of Career S e r v i c e s for the Older Adult S a n d r a K. Olson a n d S t e v e n B. R o b b i n s V i r g i n i a C o m m o n w e a l t h University
This issue has identified some of the kinds of career planning assistance currently available to individuals 50 years of age and older. The purpose of this concluding article is to serve as a bridge between these articles and subsequent efforts. Where shall we go from here? What steps are needed to provide a broader range of career services to more older adults? As more programs are designed, how will we know which interventions work best with what types of users? Kieffer's article identifies how h u m a n resource m a n a g e m e n t policy could change to facilitate the vocational development of older adults; this article considers how individual counselors and agencies can contribute to t h a t process.
A Common Goal: Program Development and Evaluation This article assumes t h a t subsequent steps taken to provide more career services to larger numbers of older adults should serve a common goal, simultaneous program development and evaluation. The former has been occurring; scant attention has been paid to the latter. For example, there have been relatively few formal evaluations of retirement planning programs (Kasschau, 1974; Olson, 1981). Although studies of the effectiveness of life planning workshops have included a few middle-aged participants (Peterson, 1979; Strauss, 1977), no studies have A vocational psychologist and specialist in the career development of older adults, Sandra K. Olson is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Steven B. Robbins is a counseling psychologist and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University. Journal of CareerDevelopment, Vol. 13(2), Winter 1986
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considered the impact of life planning methods designed specifically for older adults (see Kouri's article in this issue). Finally, the evaluation of placement programs for older adults has been restricted to informal evaluations (e.g. Wilson, Bercini & Richards, 1978) and to Gray's (1983) comparison of Job Club and state-run job Service approaches. In Gray's study, 48% of the participants were 50 to 62 years of age, and 52% were 62 and older. The Job Club participants had significantly higher employment rates than those using the Job Service. Program evaluation tends to be resisted within all types of social services. The apparent need to assess the effectiveness of various interventions can easily be dismissed because of the time and expense involved, and because of confusion about how evaluation can be helpful (see Robbins, Decaria & Holleran, 1982, for a more complete discussion). In fact, it seems impractical to add program evaluation to the "to do" lists of providers of career planning to older adults. A national survey suggests that a small number of staff members offer several kinds of services to m a n y users (Olson, 1985). In general, within all career planning agencies, given the urgency of the need for services and the limited resources available to address these needs, evaluation efforts tend to be postponed indefinitely (Fretz, 1981). Is systematic program development and evaluation "wishful thinking?" We don't believe so. Rather, we see it as the formal label for the natural process by which programs are designed, implemented and held accountable. It is " . . . the systematic collection of information about the activities and outcomes of actual programs in order for interested persons to make judgments about specific concepts of what the program is doing and affecting" (Patton, 1978, p. 26). From this perspective, the objectives of program evaluation can range along a continuum from assessing program structure to assessing program outcomes and/or change factors. Correspondingly, program evaluation efforts can range from simple, descriptive techniques to more elaborate, formal strategies. An individual counselor or agency may not have the resources at present to conduct formal evaluations comparing the efficacy of varied interventions. However, three guidelines can be followed during the design of career services to facilitate eventual, formal evaluation; these are identified below. While specification of the full range of formal and informal evaluation strategies is beyond the scope of this article, a number of resources are available (see Oetting, 1982; Posavec & Carey, 1980; Suchman, 1967).
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Guideline One: Let Theory Be Your Guide
Whenever an older adult is served, a series of decisions must be made, whether implicitly or explicitly. For example, what kind of career and life planning is likely to best serve the needs of this person and with which desired outcomes ? Comprehensive career development theories can help us answer these questions by identifying those individual characteristics of the older adult and his or her environment that help determine the perceived need of that individual and, in turn, the most appropriate intervention strategies for him or her. Thus, theories help the practitioner by providing a frame of reference for formulating assessment and intervention plans. Program planners can be assisted by theory when designing career interventions for older adults. However, heeding this guideline is challenging because, as Hall (1976) and Tolbert (1980) observe, career development theories have focused almost exclusively on the behaviors young adults engage in as they prepare for, and advance within, a work role. Further, although we understand aspects of young adult career-related behaviors, there remain major gaps in our understanding. In short, we do not know precisely how careers develop (Harmon & Farmer, 1983; Osipow, 1983), or what kinds of career counseling methods work with which individuals (Fretz, 1981). If theory is not "finished," how can what we do not know be our guide? Harmon and Farmer (1983) suggest that all career counselors simulate the process by which good theory is built. They invite counselors to engage continually in both deductive and inductive reasoning: deductive when applying and testing out stated, and usually published, theories and methods; and inductive by being open to, and learning from, one's counsellees' experiences. This strategy is particularly appropriate for counselors of older adults. When career counselors of older adults are testing whether published theories and interventions work, a helpful starting point is Tolbert's (1980) speculation about the relevance of career and adult development theories for this age group. Two perspectives not considered in the Tolbert article are highlighted below. The Life Events theory of adult development (Hultsch & Plemons, 1979; Lerner & Hultsch, 1983) can guide practitioners. The theory suggests that older adults may need career planning because of unexpected events (e.g., early retirement, or a plant closing) or predictable changes (e.g., retirement, loss of parents, children leaving home, loss
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of physical stamina). Since unexpected events tend to be particularly stressful, the theory suggests that individuals are likely to need assistance while coping with them. Current retirement planning programs tend to assume that individuals will retire "on time" and will have time for advance planning (Olson, 1981). Do we need other programs for individuals coping with unexpected, early retirement? Life Events theory also suggests that some individuals are more adept than are others when confronting changes; and that help from various sources (including professionals) can make needed adjustments more manageable. The challenge to individuals is to cope with inevitable changes which are sources of stress and may precipitate other changes, e.g., in one's leisure patterns or work role. A second perspective which is particularly instructive for counselors of older adults is Schlossberg's (1981, 1984) model for analyzing human adaptation to transitions. As does Life Events theory, Schlossberg assumes that biological, social, environmental, and/or cognitive changes, and the need to adapt to them, are inevitable for all adults. She uses the term "transition" to encompass all of these possible alterations. Schlossberg predicts how individuals are likely to respond to transitions, and states that three sets of factors are involved. These are the individual's perceptions of the particular transition (e.g., does the person feel it is "on time" or "off time"?), characteristics of pre-transition and post-transition environments (e.g., kinds of social support available in each), and characteristics of the individual (e.g. her or his personality or state of health). Ultimately, one's adaptation depends on the balance of one's resources and deficits, and differences in preand post-transition environments. An implication of the model is that interventions with older adults can take into account and differ as a function of all three factors: how the person is appraising the change he or she is experiencing; the nature and extent of social support available to him or her; and his or her individual characteristics, including both deficits and strengths. Further implications of the model for career interventions are discussed in Schlossberg (1984). Clearly, further research is needed to see how applicable existing theories and models are to the vocational development of older adults. Entirely new perspectives m a y be the most helpful. By reasoning inductively, and learning while doing counseling, developers of career programs can contribute to theory-building efforts. For example, when older adults are asked what they would like to do with their available time and energy, what do they say? Holland's (1985) theory predicts individuals' preferred leisure activities, part-time work, or second
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career are likely to be of the same "type" as their prior vocational choices. However, other theorists (Midlarsky & Kahana, 1986) speculate t h a t older adults are strongly motivated to be of service, and t h a t helping others can boost their sense of competence. This suggests t h a t former plumbers, scientists, playwrights, business persons, and accountants might all tend toward helping or "social" choices in late life. The case study in the Burr article in this issue describes a person who made a radical career change so he could help others. How prevalent is this phenomena? Further, when older adults reminisce about their work histories, what patterns are evident? Have individuals traversed through "growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline" stages (Super, 1957)? Or is the more obvious pattern one of a changing combination of roles (Super, 1980)? Or is chance more evident in long-lived work histories t h a n vocational psychologists are inclined to recognize (Bandura, 1982)? By asking questions and recording their observations, current, pioneer providers of career planning to older adults can also be part of a scientific "cutting edge." What better place to test and build vocational theories t h a n by talking with persons who have lived long enough to have much to share?
Guideline Two: Establishing a Hierarchy of Objectives Counselors and agency directors can also prepare now to conduct formal evaluations by establishing a hierarchy of objectives. Suchman (1967) suggests t h a t program objectives constitute a chain of action such t h a t immediate objectives (e.g., setting up a particular program) influence intermediate objectives (e.g., what t h a t program seeks for its participants) which, in turn, influence ultimate objectives (e.g., the other, intended results for participants and their environment). Immediate goals refer to the specific act with which one is momentarily concerned, such as the formation of an obesity club; the intermediate goals push ahead toward the accomplishment of the specific act, such as the actual reduction of weight of club members; the ultimate goal then examines the effect of achieving the intermediate goal upon the health status of the members, such as reduction in the incidence of heart disease (Suchman, 1967, pp 51-52). Establishing a hierarchy of objectives serves a number of purposes. First, this forces the program to clarify the "causal linkages" between program goals, intermediate goals, and eventual outcomes and thus to
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be explicit about what one seeks to accomplish. For example, an ultimate goal for some retirement planning programs is improved public relations for the company; whether this is accomplished has not been evaluated (Olson, 1981). Further, in this issue Kieffer suggests that the presumed, eventual outcomes of early retirement programs are not accomplished, e.g., increased productivity for the company. This merits empirical investigation. Secondly, clearly delineating the objectives of the program facilitates evaluation of services. Assessment strategies can be devised to test for successful outcomes in any or all of the objectives areas. It is perfectly legitimate to begin an evaluation process by simply asking whether the program is being implemented and the consumer is satisfied. Dennis (1982) has listed a series of criteria for determining whether a preretirement program is being implemented successfully. Examination of intermediate and ultimate objectives can follow. Do participants in outplacement programs, for example, actually accomplish an intermediate objective by changing targeted behaviors, jobseeking skills? Are their new positions satisfying to them? The latter, as well as monies saved when a company does not have to continue to pay unemployment insurance, can be considered ultimate objectives for an outplacement effort. The objectives one selects are influenced by one's theory of career development. For example, an assumption that leisure activities are the primary source of satisfaction for older adults suggests the ultimate objective of career counseling may be a greater range and variety of leisure experiences. Further, an assumption that there is a reciprocal relationship between level of activity and health status suggests that the ultimate objective of a career counseling program for older adults could be increases in various measures of health status (c.f., Kaplan 1984 for discussion of the link between health promotion and health status). Guideline Three: Consider Possible Attribute and Intervention Interactions
Having specified program objectives, a practitioner may suspect that a given method or program does not work as well for some participants as it does for others. However, a global rating of consumer satisfaction only confirms the hypothesis, and does not indicate exactly what is not working and for whom. A clearer indication of which interventions produce the desired results for what types of individuals is possible
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through the assessment of participant attributes when offering more than one intervention and, simultaneously, measuring outcomes. In an excellent review of the literature, Fretz (1981) recommends this approach be used to evaluate career counseling. It is also relevant to services for older adults. The use of this approach is illustrated in a study of Robbins and Tucker (in press). The researchers examined the interaction of a personality variable, goal instability, with self-directed or interactional career workshops. Goal instability referred to the participants' degree of personal confusion about self and their lack of goal directedness. Self-directed workshops were information focused and did not facilitare participant interaction, whereas interactional workshops were leader and support focused. It was hypothesized that people with high goal instability would need the support and encouragement of others to engage in the career planning process. As expected, the researchers found that those people with high goal instability only benefited from the interactional workshops, whereas people with low goal instability benefited regardless of workshop type. While a trend in career programs has been toward the use of self-directed interventions (e.g., Krivasty & Magoon, 1976), this study suggests that a basic informational approach is not effective with all types of career clients. Currently, individuals and agencies providing career planning to older adults are not likely to offer several different kinds of interventions or to have the resources needed to conduct a formal evaluation in the manner suggested by Fretz (1981). However, the model can also provide guidance during program development. Table 1 identifies attributes and interventions which can be considered for this purpose. It highlights, and does not exhaustively list, potential attributes and interventions. Counselors are likely to be aware of the demographic characteristics of their clients. By also assessing client resources and psychological/cognitive characteristics, providers of career planning can get a broader picture of current participants, form hypotheses about program effectiveness, and identify types of individuals for whom other programs may need to be offered. For example, individuals who are less educated, somewhat anxious, and bereft of social support may not secure a job through a standard screening interview and placement procedure; they may need further assistance through a Job Club (Azrin, & Besalel, 1980). On the other hand, individuals who have completed higher levels of education, are "self-directed" learners (see Caffarella & O'Donnel, 1985, for a discussion), and have considerable
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Table 1
Identifying Relevant Older Adult Attributes and Corresponding Interventions as Part of Program Development and Evaluation a
Potential Participant Attributes Demographic
Psychological/Cognitive
Resources
age education race sex socioeconomic level
coping skills learning style level of anxiety personality type self esteem/ego strength
health prior counseling or training self-awareness social-support work history
Potential Interventions Content
Interpersonal Context
Degree of Structure
financial planning leisure counseling life/work planning placement skill development
individual counseling peer counseling self-help groups other groups
highlystructured semi-structured unstructured
°Adapted from Fretz (1981) Evaluating the effectiveness of career interventions, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 77-90.
social support m a y prefer to do independent investigation and thus not respond favorably to a structured, formal placement program. Patterns such as this can be suggested when a more comprehensive assessment procedure is in place. A subsequent, formal evaluation can test hypotheses generated in this manner. If an individual counselor or agency detects a need to expand services, Table 1 can suggest a range of possible interventions. For example, a survey of providers of career planning to older adults indicated that services were primarily placement-related and were offered through individual counseling even though staff sizes were small (Olson, 1985). Waters (1984) suggests peer counseling and self-help
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groups m a y be the treatment of choice for a number of older adult concerns; they could supplement existing placement services and free up staff time. As suggested above, some individuals may be more responsive to self-help groups while others need individual counseling. As our examples have suggested, a more rigorous assessment of participant attributes begs one to consider "What assistance does this person need?" Also, interventions are best designed to respond to particular types of persons. There is an inevitable, eventual interaction between participant attributes and interventions. A formal assessment, per Fretz (1981), can indicate how this process does or does not build effective programs. An expanded assessment procedure and wider range of interventions are necessary first steps.
Conclusion This article has assumed that career services for older adults will be expanded. A skeptical reader may wonder about this. As Bornstein notes in this issue, older adult placement programs have evolved largely as a result of federal and state funding. However, although two-thirds of career services for older adults report receiving some type of federal assistance and two fifths receive state or local funding, the latter are by no means their only sources of support (Olson, 1985). Onefifth collect fees, for example. Further, some futurists consider present trends the best indication of likely developments (Cetron, 1984; Naisbitt, 1982). As stated in the introduction, evidence of a current trend toward career services for older adults is compelling. As a result of an article in the monthly publication of the American Association of Retired Persons about work opportunities after retirement (Carlson, 1985), an identified placement agency received 397 letters from 43 states (Brussell, 1986). The individuals said they need and want to return to work. The question may be not whether this age group will be helped, but rather who will do so, and how they will best be assisted. It seems safe to assume that career services for older adults will remain and may flourish. As they evolve, we have suggested that agencies build in an evaluation component. When doing so, individual counselors and agencies are advised to: be guided by theories, including their own speculations; establish a clear, specific hierarchy of objectives; and consider possible attribute and intervention interactions.
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