Microcomputers in education: a Kenyan experience Benjamin M. Makau and Brian Wray

Development of the initial philosophy This article discusses a non-governmental organization sponsored innovation in the use o f microcomputers in secondary schools in Kenya. The project takes into account commercial pressures on schools to familiarize themselves with computers, the need to improve the quality of classroom instruction and the environment which may face today's youth in the twenty-first century. In the early I98os a considerable number of people involved in the Aga Khan commtmity educational scene in Kenya became interested in microcomputers. This was largely a response to developments in the West where major initiatives were already underway. The Aga

Benjamin M. Makau (Kenya) is the Research Director in Phase H of the Computers in Education Project. He was a teacher and headmaster at various secondary schools for eight years before taking charge of the public examinations body in Kenya in 1973. Since June x983 he has been a Research Associate working on the quality of education at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi. Brian Wray (United Kingdom) is the Project Director

of the Aga Khan Computers in Education Project, which has just moved into its second phase. He taught at secondary level for ten years in Kenya, and an equal time in the United Kingdom before taking up his present post.

Khan Education Service, Kenya, proposed that microcomputers be introduced into one of its own schools as a pilot project, which, if successful, could serve as a model for future innovations both inside its own school system, and for other interested parties in developing countries. The Aga Khan Foundation was asked to fund not onty the necessary hardware but also the employment of an educatiouist to manage the project. An initial attempt at recruiting such a consultant from the United Kingdom,' where the Micro-Electronic Project (MEP) had recently started, showed that while Kenyan formal education had many of its roots in the United Kingdom, the problems and necessary solutions were now quite different. The direction being taken by the main stream of thought i n the United Kingdom, with its orientation towards maths and physical science derivatives was too limiting, while the overall environment for the introduction in Kenya was far less developed. One of the present authors was eventually appointed with a brief to develop his ideas in this field, and t o be responsible for their implementation for an initial period of two years. His plans, and the philosophy behind them owed more to his practical experience of senior positions in Kenyan schools and to many years of dabbling with computers, rather than to theories of computers in education. Experience had already been gained in work-orientated microcomputer training for disadvantaged pupils in a Nairobi

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low-cost secondary school and in guiding adult lecturers at the Kenya Polytechnic. Early in 1983, visits were made to several well-established pilot school schemes in the United Kingdom, as well as to institutions which were just receiving their governmentfunded machines. Discussions were held with some of the leaders of the MEP centres, as well as old-established metropolitan initiatives at Birmingham, Havering, London and Hatfield. Good sources of ideas were also to be found in various Council for Educational Technology publications, as well as government-sponsored pamphlets. The problems and successes of these enterprises, coupled with commentary in the press, and especially the newly arisen microcomputer press, helped to show that while the British scheme was very useful it could not serve as a model for Third World countries like Kenya, at least not without considerable modification. The major differences were that most teachers in the United Kingdom already subscribed to a child-centred curriculum and there had been a tremendous amount of public information provided by way of BBC-TV's The Computer Programme initially and later by other sections of the media. In contrast the majority of teachers in Kenya are constrained by the system to a very formal teaching style (Ghai, 1974; Republic of Kenya, 1976; Court and Kinyanjul, I978), and there was little or no awareness of this new technology. As a further factor, the British scene appeared to favour computer science as an examination subject (it was the only growth subject, reaching its peak recently), whereas it would be impossible and it was not felt desirable to introduce it as an examination subject in Kenya--at least in the short term. 1 Although the information from other developed countries was more distant it also appeared that there was an emphasis on the technology rather than its use: as if schools were concentrating on an auto mechanic's course rather than on a driver's one. Further ideas were, however, available (e.g. Papert, I98o; Toffler, I97o; Nora and Minc, 198o), and comments in the

computer press of commercial disappointments and needs, giving hints as to where this brave new world might be heading. In developing the philosophy of the Kenyan project, therefore, it was possible to guess where the educational world of the West might be heading in a few years' time; to map out the steps that it had taken to date; to plan those which would become necessary; and particularly to gauge those which could be ignored as transitory. It was decided that learning about the machine and programming in BASIC were incidental to the needs of the future: what was needed was to use the microcomputers in the schools to improve the level of instruction, to give teachers a new challenge in order to revitalize them, and give children an experience of a tool which would affect their lives. The factor of cost naturally controls and shapes the implementation of any philosophy. Thus it was decided that the target school would be provided with four Apple microcomputers with disk-drives, monochrome screens and a printer. The choice of computer was strongly influenced by the availability, at that time, of software which appeared appropriate. A further BBC microcomputer was provided in the expectation that the software base would grow as the Micro-Electronic Project produced more, and it may have thus become the dominant machine in the educational marketplace. Four machines were felt to b e the minimum that could be used in order to accomplish the required changes. While more machines could have been provided it was obvious that we should look at minimums rather than maximums. In addition to the capital hardware costs, funds were set aside for the purchase of software, including books, magazines and journals, and for in-service education over a three-year period. A major and constant threat to development in the past, both in Western education and in Third World aid projects, has been that central funding was likely to be found for capital items, but the necessary recurrent expenditures would be thrown onto the recipients before they were capable of funding them

Microcomputers in education: a Kenyan experience

or before they were convinced of the need to fund (World Bank, I98O; Psacharopoulos and Woodhall, I985; Nkinyangi, I98O; Makau, I985). It is obvious that for any innovation to succeed it is necessary to change the way people think and work. However, many schemes fall by the wayside because insufficient funds, attention or thought are given to this process. There is a whole literature on Third World development projects which underlines this fact, with a great many related to education. In Kenya alone the demise of the three secondary science projects, and new mathematics schemes offer ample evidence that the difficulties of innovation do not lie with the development of materials and ideas, but in their wider dissemination. At this stage however wide dissemination was not the issue. Rather, it was how to introduce the new technology to schools, to move as far as possible towards the goal of quality education. Hence a central issue would be the development of the manpower resources available, especially to produce sufficient expertise within the target teacher population so that they could become Self-sustaining within the two-year period. The teachers in the project school, like their colleagues the world over, saw themselves as sovereign in their own classroom. It was therefore decided that if they had the central role in the classroom, though not necessarily in the learning process, the innovatory process should concentrate on them. It would be a concern that the pupils should gain experience, but in the first instance that would be delegated to the teachers themselves. Thus it was hoped that the teachers would be able to master the new equipment, if not the technology, and to use it in their own teaching. Since they would be taken through a process of problem-posing or discovery learning, rather than one of training, it was hoped that they might start to reexamine their own teaching philosophy and the methods they tended to use. However, a critical balance would have to be struck between self-learning and training since the environment was hostile to the first, appeared

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to reward the latter, and provided no support for these new experiences and techniques. It would thus be necessary, at least, to create from scratch the primitive infrastructure ot knowledge which was, by that time, in place in the West. It was felt that the practice of drawing one or two teachers from each school, invariably science or maths orientated, would cause problems with the main goals, since it would reinforce the dlitist ideals and the fallacy that computers were primarily for those disciplines. It was, and remains, central to the philosophy that the microcomputer is a tool, for use across all subject areas, which will eventually reveal more uses in most other subjects outside of maths and science departments. It was seen as essential that all the teaching staff of the project school should participate in the introductory workshop, and that this would be for a period of at least sixty hours. The major aim of this workshop would be to develop a broad understanding of the microcomputer and its use in the classroom, with the hidden agenda of forcing teachers into a learning situation, and thus using the microcomputer as a catalyst for educational discussion. It was planned that the initial workshop would be followed by in-house guidance and discussion, so that the teachers would begin to adopt a more liberal approach not only when using microcomputers but also in non-computer lessons. It was hoped that the use of the machines would become part of the normal schemes of work, that teachers would accept them as an aid and that as a bonus there would be some software produced which would be not only content but context specific.

The implementation process The Aga Khan Academy, bIairobi, was chosen for the pilot project. The Academy, a private co-educational secondary school managed by the Aga Khan Education Service, has about 65~ pupils and 36 teachers.

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T h e Pilot Project was inaugurated in October I982. Having spent the first three months of I983 collecting ideas and materials, the Project Director conducted the initial workshop for teachers during the April school vacation. Unfortunately, things did not work out as expected: the materials, including all the computers, did not clear through customs until the last day of the vacation, forcing a lecture/ discussion approach rather than hands-on guided discovery. It was obvious that courses, seminars, workshops and individual discussions would be required to make up for this lost opportunity, and these proceeded over the next two school terms. At the initial stages two strategies were adopted. First, it was decided that during the term following the initial workshop only the teachers would use the computers: it had been realized that teachers needed a clear headstart before they introduced the technology to their pupils. Secondly, teachers, concentrating on h o w t o operate the computers as opposed to learning how to program, were encouraged toexperience and explore the classroom software packages (a total of about eighty) provided as part of the initial project equipment. The teachers were given a chance to 'play' with the software relevant to their subjects. Although time-consuming, the concept of play which is absent in many post-primary classrooms, was perceived as important enough to be re-introduced. Unless the staff saw the purpose of play, it was unlikely that they would introduce productive play in their classrooms. In many of the subjects teachers found they had programs which they could immediately use with pupils and several teachers decided to go ahead. After the expected initial period of classroom chaos, many teachers realized that the management of a class which used computers required approaches different from those they had used before. For example, classroom space and assigments had to be re-organized. These developments led to many discussions on educational methodology. The teachers at this stage were torn between familiar 'chalk and

talk' methods and the need to learn and implement new methods; the desire to return to the easy familiar paths was very great. In introducing the technology in the teachinglearning process, the Project Director, playing the role of a facilitator and technician, worked through the teachers: either in the computers' base room or in the classrooms he assumed the role of a classroom assistant, thereby leaving the regular teacher in control of his or her class. This low-key intervention by the Project Director made possible discussion with the regular staff, covering teaching as well as computer techniques. Although the innovation principally aimed at revitalizing education through changing the teachers' approaches, two other developments were natural offshoots of the new educational technology. First, it became obvious that a direct computer-related course for pupils was necessary, and a start was made through the development of such a course for second-year pupils. However, this quickly became an information technology course, attempting to give pupils some ideas of the way the world of information might function and impinge on their lives in the first decade after they leave school. By the end of I985 a detailed syllabus had been developed. The course, taught by the Project Director initially, is currently handled by one of the regular teachers. The second off-shoot of the innovation was the use of the computer in school administration. Thisapplication of the technology, initially excluded from the project, could not be ignored for long: it would be nonsense to discuss with pupils the application of computers in offices and workplace, and then for the pupils not to see computers within their own school's management structure. This fact was not lost to the Academy's headmaster whose enthusiasm for the innovation has been a significant factor. Within a year of the launching of the project the school administration had acquired a microcomputer. Currently three microcomputers are used in the administration of finance, the management of the school office and the maintenance of pupils' records.

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ment. There is general agreement among educationists that learning is most effective when pupils are actively involved, are highly motivated and when individual differences are From the inception of the project, evaluation taken into account (e.g. Getzels, 1974; Knapper, was regarded as an important component The 198o). A corollary to these views is the precept Project Director produced regular in-house that the learning process should be interreports and presented papers at several inter- actional (between teacher and pupils and national workshops (Wray, 1983, 1984). From between pupils) rather than a one way comJune 1985 onwards two researchers from the munication from the teacher to pupils. The University of Nairobi carried out a systematic literature on educational developments in the evaluation of the project (Gakuru and Kariuki, Third World is replete with observations that 1986). The Project also attracted the attention didactic as opposed to interactional teachingof scholars at the international level: consultants learning approaches predominate (e.g. Nyerere, with knowledge and experience in the field 1968; Castle, 1972; Court and Ghai, 1974; visited the Academy and produced evaluation World Bank, 1974). The computer because reports on the project. While not papering over of its interactional potential is commonly problems associated with the innovation, these acclaimed as an educational tool which should various evaluation reports are unanimous that assist in making teaching-learning interactional to a large extent the pilot project has been a and pupil-centred (Becker, 1984; Harris and SUCCCSS. Strachan, 1985; Norton, 1985). Evaluation A s pointed out in the first section above, the reports on the pilot project at the Aga Khan main thrust of the innovation was to effect Academy strongly suggest that the microchange in the teaching-learning process through computer has generated developments along teacher in-service training, using the computer these lines. Sometimes the computer has been as a catalyst. Not only was it the case that used as an electronic blackboard, but inwithin two years the majority of teachers in the creasingly the classes would divide into small school were actively using microcomputers groups, some working with computers while ( W r a y , 1984), but more important, there others would work on other tasks. Gakuru and developed among the teachers a heightened Kariuki (1986) note that grouping was closely capacity and a willingness to discuss and associated with increased discussionmnot only explore new ways of using the computer to between the teacher and pupils but also enhance their teaching approaches. Relating the between pupils--and with the emergence of experiences of two teachers who, through the 'pupil experts', who in several cases were able use of the computers with pupils, had been led to operate the computer better than the teacher, to think out new pedagogic approaches, These developments herald the beginnings of George Papagiannis" concludes: new relations in the learning environment and One Of m y major findings (and confirmation of find- should be regarded as improvement of the quality of the educational process: no longer ings from previous reports) is that the teachers have become more reflective about their subject-content are teachers the sole authority for information a n d their pedagogy used w i t h students. I n a sense, and methods; no longer can they rely simply on one could describe this capacity as an Cexploratory their position to gain respect; no longer are attitude' toward the possibilities of computer techpupils expected to work on their own with no nology use in the instructional process but more discussion; and no longer do pupils and start importantly, toward the art and science of teaching regard school as boring. itself. As part of the revitalization of the educational A second outcome of the project was the process, the innovation has led to new thinking beginning of change in the learning environ- about the role of technology in education. At

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first the computers were housed in a small room which was also the Project Director's office and into which a whole class could not fit. By mid-I984, because of the demand for computer use by teachers, the headmaster had created a new large resource centre from two normal classrooms. In addition to the computers, the centre is being equipped with more conventional and low-cost technologies in order to make it a full information technologyresource laboratory. The enlarged laboratory is expected to service the further development of the information technology course, itself an attempt to make education more relevant, and to encourage the use of a variety of aids in teaching and learning. To underscore the importance the school attaches to the innovation, at the same time as the computers moved into their new room a school media co-ordinator was appointed from among the senior members of the staff. This marked a significant threshold for the project's development since it has meant that the school is again functioning as an integrated whole with only occasional input from the Project Director. An important lesson from the project concerns the mode of implementation. The Project Director has been at pains to forge an alliance with the teachers on a peer basis, rather than imposing ideas from above. He has aimed at helping individual teachers to think through the goals and objectives of what is to be taught as the first step in formulating the use of computerrelated materials or approaches, Thus teachers' resistance to innovation, widely reported in the literature on implementing changes in education, has been greatly minimized. However, it should be noted that the evocative character of the computer (Turkle, I984) and its interactional capacity facilitate acceptance by teachers and pupils. Confirming the observation, common in the literature, that school improvement to a large extent depends on the vision and actions of the head (Walker, I965; Goodwin, I968; Greaves, I969; Smith, I973; Sarason, I982; Thompson and Cooley, I984), the Project Director's efforts have been complemented by

the support given to the innovation by the Academy's headmaster: in addkion to developing computer-managed educational programmes, for example, time-tabling and maintenance of pupils' progress records, he has shown great interest in, and has encouraged the use of, computers in the classroom. There have been problems, The mathematics and science teachers were sold to the innovation at an early stage, with the language and businesseducation staff coming a distant second. Several of the humanities teachers, particularly history teachers, have not adopted the technology. To some extent this resistance is explained by the fact that the courseware provided, reflecting the situation in the West, is predominantly in the mathematics and science disciplines, and the small amount available in the humanities is too culture-specific to be of much use in Kenyan classrooms. Attempts have been made to develop courseware at the Academy. Using the teachers' programming language, PILOT, several teachers in the mathematics, science and geography departments have developed software for use with pupils, and evaluators of the project have been bombarded with requests that they recommend more training in programming. However, the issue is not simply one of more technical training. As in the West (Tucker, I986), the software developed by the academy staff is geared to testing, basically a subset of drill-and-practice. Given that the Kenyan secondary curriculum is greatly influenced by public examinations which emphasize the memorizing of facts as opposed to the development of higher cognitive abilities (e.g. problemsolving), the probability is that the teachers are unlikely to move out of the drill-and-practice mode; neither are they likely to encourage a free exploratory use of computers by pupils. In order for the production of software and the more imaginative and freely interactive use of computers to develop fully, it seems necessary that curricula and examinations should be appropriately modified at the national level. While the computer innovation, with its emphasis on continuous curricular develop-

Microcomputers in education: a Kenyan experience

ment at the teaching level and its orientation to participatory methods in the classroom, is a model that could be used in educational planning, in itself the innovation cannot provide the policy infrastructure for the necessary reform.

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metres north-west of Nairobi). Under Phase II, four additional microcomputers, software and other cheaper technologies, for example, overhead projectors and audio-cassette recorders, have been placed at the pilot school. Altogether Phase II covers about 25o teachers and 3,5oo pupils. The basic idea of Phase II is to explore the Phase II--expansion of the project replicability of the pilot project at five additional sites and to encourage further developThe desirability of experimenting with the use ment at the Academy, in both cases without the of computers as an educational technology in day-to-day support of a resident project direcmore than one school had always been part of tor. A new project office has been established the long-term planning of the funding agency. separate from any of the six schools. The As the computers at the Aga Khan Academy Project Director, in addition to mounting the began to result in observable salutary effects on necessary Start-up workshops for teachers in the teaching/learning, the possibilities of expansion new schools, has scheduled a series of follow-up began to be actively explored. The emergence workshops and regular visits to the schools; of a fair number of teachers who, with minimal further he and his technical assistant are in support from the Project Director, could be touch with the schools by telephone. However, relied upon to sustain the innovation, and who in contrast to the pilot project, the success of could help in the introduction of computers in Phase II will be more influenced by the dayother schools made expansion a distinct possi- to-day actions of the heads and staff in the bility. On a different plane, demand for more schools. The objectives of Phase II of the computer time for both teachers and pupils project are as follows: at the Academy, coupled with the overall To improve the quality of teaching by inphilosophy of encouraging the use of a variety service teacher education using the microof educational technologies, necessitated concomputers as a catalyst. sideration of the provision of more hardware To use microcomputers as a teaching resource and software at the pilot school. in appropriate school subject topics. By October I985 a Phase II project proposal To provide the pupils with a basic knowledge of had been prepared. It was approved for new information technologies, both to aid funding by the Aga Khan Foundation in them in their studies and to make them February I986, and has been supported by aware of their technological environment. Apple Computer Inc. through a generous To improve the quality of the school adminisdonation of hardware and basic software. As a tration through the use of appropriate inforresult, five microcomputers (one for the develmation technology. opment of school management) have been To appoint such members of staff as required introduced into each of five new secondary so that the school can maintain its level of schools. Three of the new schools are fully educational information technology without government maintained, one is government the need for continued support of the assisted (i.e. its teachers are paid from public project. funds) and the remaining one is a private The launching of Phase II has been accompanied institution. Three of the schools are mixed, by issues which planners of similar projects with the other two being for girls only. Two of would be well advised to take into account. The the new schools are in Nairobi, two in Mombasa project proposal went into considerable detail (5oo kilometres from Nairobi) and the fifth is in spelling out most of the necessary prepin the Rift Valley Province (about z7o kilo- arations, for example, timing, provision of

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materials, authority to include government schools, initial training requirements, project personnel, and the organization of the research effort. It was intended that before any os the new schools were introduced to computers, data on their pre-innovation status would be collected so as to provide a baseline against which implementation would be compared. It was planned that the innovation in the new schools would be implemented in stages: twoweek start-up workshops for teachers were planned to take place during two school vacations in z986: April f o r the Nairobi schools and August for the Mombasa schools. The idea was that the Project Director would concentrate on guiding two new schools for a full school term before taking on another two, and so on. Delays, ranging from difficulties in importing equipment as scheduled to a prolonged search for the appropriate evaluation model, were experienced in the actual implementation. The start-up workshops for the Nairobi and Mombasa schools had to be rescheduled to take place in August I986, with the fifth school having to be initiated during the school term (evenings and weekends in October). Thus, if the implementation in the new schools was not to be delayed for at least a year, the idea of staggering it had to be abandoned, since the December school vacation, though the longest, is taken up by teachers' involvement in the marking of public examinations, a A further cause of delay at the start was that the first consignment of the equipment for Phase II did not arrive at the project office until the second week of August, three days before the end of the Nairobi start-up workshop and five days before the start of the Mombasa one. Although it enabled thorough discussion and development os the research component, the long gestation period for an agreed research model contributed to the delay in launching the project and prevented the collection os baseline data as originally intended. In contrast to an earlier intention of using part-time university researchers, currently a full-time Research Director, Ben Makau, is working with

four part-time local associate researchers, all with expertise in educational research. An educational economist has been identified to carry out a relative cost analysis of the innovation, in particular to examine the viability of wider replication in the context of a resource-starved Third World education system. Although the research component, housed in the project office, is expected to play a formative role in the implementation of the innovation, its main objective is to decipher and record systematically the extent of changes--associated with the introduction of the new technologymwhich occur in the teaching-learning transaction and the management o f the six schools. Bearing in mind constraints in the financing of education, the research findings are also expected to lead to insights as to how teaching-learning and the management of institutions could be improved even if the new technology could not be introduced on a wide scale. We believe that four deductions can be drawn from this discussion. First, educational planners in Third World countries should not be dominated by models present in the developed world, rather they should examine these in relation to variables relevant to their own countries. Secondly, NGO initiatives in funding small-scale projects at the leading edge of educational technology should be encouraged as a cost-effective method of gaining incountry expertise. Thirdly, innovations even if built around advanced tools, only succeed if the human dimension of intervention is carefully considered and utilized. Lastly, innovations of the type described should be carefully researched and the findings as widely disseminated as the outcomes os the innovation itselfi 9

( Nairobi, December z986)

Microcomputers in education: a Kenyan experience

Notes I. Recently the Kenya curriculum panel for Diploma Studies in Computer Science recorded its views to this effect. 2. Dr George Papagiannis, of the Department of Educational Foundations and Policy Studies at the Florida State University, United States, has been involved in the evaluation of the Project. His report entitled, 'The Nairobi Aga Khan Academy Computers in Education Project: A Review' (March 1985), carries significant insights into the impact of the project. 3- The Kenyan school year has three vacation periods, in April, August and December. Innovations that require teachers' involvement during these months must carefully dovetail into competing activities, such as sports, in-service workshops, examlnations and teachers' annual leave, which form part of the school calendar.

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