GeoJournal 26.2

139

139-147

© 1992 (Feb) by Kluwer Academic Publishers

Nature and Cosmic Integrity A Search in Hindu Geographical Thought Singh, Rana P.B., Prof. Dr., Banaras Hindu University, Department of Geography, Varanasi 221 005, UP, India ABSTRACT: The roots of Hindu geographic thought can be traced to the remote past, going back at least to c. 3500 BC. Formerly the unity of Nature and Man was expressed in the context of religious activities. The idea of nature and human integrity in Hindu thought depends upon ways in which people see and experience themselves, their sense of attachment to nature, and their ways of maintaining this. It is through symbolism, the main expression of mythological understanding, that one can gain insight into the relationships of humanity to Nature. Creation and incarnation myths describe the origin of organic life and of its five basic elements. The integrity of dwelling in space is expressed through the notion of home. Religion plays a vital role in the Hindu quest for harmony between nature and humanity. Mystics understand the roots of the Tao but not its branches; scientists understand its branches but not its roots. Science does not need mysticism and mysticism does not need science; but man needs both (Capra 1976, p. 297).

Introduction H i n d u thought has survived from the remote past - at least since 3500 BC. In the primitive mode of existence in those days, high value was ascribed to the unity of life and to emotional attachment and sympathy with nature in different forms, at various levels, and through a variety of rituals and sacrifices. The Vedic society organized these activities mostly with reference to magic. Nevertheless these activities were so closely related to one another that it is now almost impossible to separately identify them. It was an oral culture which over time took the shape of a written tradition. T h e n , as indeed still today: reality was regarded as being in a state of flux, so both oral and written traditions co-exist in practice and continue to influence each other. No clear distinction is therefore made b e t w e e n matter, life, and mind. H u m a n s have always visualized themselves with respect to Nature, the individual person being considered as microcosmic organism and Nature as macrocosm. Nature has b e e n perceived by sensory awareness and such intuitively perceived knowledge has been expressed with the help of symbols. The symbol is the most ancient form of communicating a people's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h u m a n life,

meaning, and experience. Rituals, too, liturgically express people's relationships to Nature. Together, rituals and symbols cover the entire spectrum of H i n d u religious thought. F r o m the Vedic age through the Upanisadic to the Purfinic age, there developed a chain of mythologies which were preserved in various forms of religious symbols. While claiming no direct connection with m o d e r n scientific investigation, these symbols have a great deal to say about h u m a n experience. Z u k a v (1979, p. 217) stated that: Hindu mythology is virtually a large-scale projection into the psychological realm of microscopic scientific discoveries. Hindu deities such as giva and Visnu continuously dance the creation and destruction of universes. The importance of symbols in u n d e r s t a n d i n g H i n d u thought and practice rests on the connotational frame of the "symbol" itself. T o y n b e e (1976, p. 53) stated clearly: A symbol is not identical or co-extensive with the object that it symbolizes. If it were this, it would be, not a symbol of the thing, but the thing itself. It would be an error to suppose that a symbol is intended to be a reproduction of the thing that it is really intended, not to reproduce, but to illuminate.

140

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

_

Mouth/

Nose" /

Speech ~

Fire

Speech/ Breath~ . ~ "'''=Wind

~'~Breath / /Vision Eyes" Sun ~""'--...~Vision/ Hearing Ears/ """"~Cardinai Directions ~"-..... Hearin g / ' " Hairs~ Skin/ -"Plants

& Trees

Mind~ Heart. , . . . /

''~ Moon

'~"'-,.~ i ind/ Downbreath..,,.,,,~ Navel/ Death ~".. Downbreath~,''~ Penis/ ~'Fig i

Semen~

Water

Semen/

Microcosm and macrocosm as given in the Aitareya Upanisad (I. 4-III. 4)

(Robinson 1982, p. 178). It is now apparently an accepted belief that the basic structure of the physical world that we observe in nature is ultimately determined by the way in which we look at this world - that is, the creations of our measuring and categorizing mind (Capra 1976, pp. 275-277). This is now an accepted belief. Every body of religious thought has its own ways of understanding the ultimate reality, Hindus included. According to physicists studying quantum mechanics, "what we perceive to be physical reality is actually our cognitive construction of it" (Zukav 1979, p. 82). Physicists are not the only people who view the world in this way. They are only the newest members of a sizeable group; most Hindus and Buddhists have also held similar views since ancient times. The sense of cognitive construction in Hinduism is reflected in the purview of performance of rituals and the related mythologies. Generally it is accepted that "there is perhaps no religion more thoroughly dedicated to the theory and performance of rituals than that of ancient Indian Vedism" (Smith 1986, p. 79). Moreover, the Vedic sacrifice has been "the richest, most elaborate and most complete among the rituals of mankind" (Staal 1979, p. 122). In fact, the Hindu performances a'nd mythologies are full of narrations dealing with relationships between Nature and Humanity and the human search for cosmic integrity. Hindu rituals have their roots in the Atharva Veda (AV), dated to c. 1400 BC, but later are fully elaborated in the Kalpa Satras, the most recent portion of the Vedic literature, probably composed during the period between 800 BC and 400 AD. They are divided into three groups of rites: ~rauta (sacrificial) performed by the sacrificer, Grhya (domestic) performed by the householder, and Dharma (religious duty) prescribing the rules for different social orders for the various stages of life and conduct. These rites are operated through the action (karma), i e the ultimate reality of life (see Kashikar 1979). For holistic understanding of Hindu geographic thought on the Nature-Man relationship, however, one needs to consider the intrinsic meanings attached to this symbolism.

Humanity in the Cosmic Ma.n.dala

What people think about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them. Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny - that is, by religion (White 1967, p. 12). Viewed historically, Hindu symbolism could shed light on the Hindu thought process itself and on its basic metaphysical assumptions. Indeed some geographers have recently acknowledged that all researchers, "consciously or unconsciously, have tended to assimilate a scientific perspective which in turn is based partly upon certain metaphysical assumptions concerning the nature of relationship between man and environment"

The relationship between humanity and Nature was conceived in the Vedic period as one of co-operation through sensory awareness, and was expressed in terms of acceptance and adjustment. The powers of Nature were deemed sacred and hence worthy of propitiatory sacrifice (Lannoy 1971, p. 271). The myth of universal creation given in the R.g Veda (RV) Purusasakta ("Song of Primordial Man", composed in c. 1000 BC) described

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

141

A) Energy b"yrnbolkun

SIV" (Dest

VtS..NU Purusa

Prakrtl

Creation and Existence

Figure: Primordial Man

PrimordialFemale

Male-Female Integrity

Symbol: Phallus

Vulva

Design of creation

(Ll~ga)

(Yoni)

(Yantra)

(Meal~fi~gy)

(Fema-I~--~ergy)

(Preservei BRAHM~, (Creator) Fig 3

., ~.

Siva Lifiga as Man.dala

B) Man-Environment Relationship Spiritual

Physical

Ideology

Social

(a) Value System

Fig 2

Action

Needs

(b) Operational System

(c) Lifsworld

Triko.ha (Triangle) symbolismin Hinduism

both its sociogonic and cosmogonic elements (RV X,90.11-14). Three elements of the human body (microcosm) are set in relation to three elements of the universe (macrocosm):

Human Body

Cosmos

Head Naval Feet

Heaven Atmosphere Earth

The intermediate steps between the microcosmic body and macrocosmic universe are described in the text Aitareya Upanis.ad, A U (I.4; II.1-4). This tells how the first man was transformed into the cosmos. The eight parts of Primordial Man were transformed into eight cosmogonic attributes. Both cosmos and man are seen as creative, and both follow "a phase in an oscillating process whereby whenever the cosmos is created, the body is destroyed, and - conversely - whenever the body is created, the cosmos is destroyed" (Lincoln 1986, p. 33). Thus, the substances found in both microcosm and macrocosm "pass from one set of alloforms to the other and back again as cosmogony and anthropology endlessly alternate" (ibid.). This is illustrated in the following figure (Fig 1).

The origin and unity of organic life in Nature are conceived as the product of Purus.a (male energy) and Prakrti (female energy), each represented by a triangle (trikon.a), one with its apex at the top and the other with apex at the bottom (Fig 2). Together these two triangles make a hexagon, which symbolizes the continuity of creation and existence. The two forms of triangles also symbolize phallus (Lihga) and vulva (Yoni), thus interaction of the two results in creation. The two positions of the triangles also represent two forms of relationships between humanity and environment - value and operation. In each case an angle represents a particular attribute: physical, social, and spiritual as basic attributes of the value system; and ideology, needs, and action as components of the operational system. These two systems working together represent the human lifeworld (Fig 2,B). The triangle image is transformed into a divine form showing ~iva Lihga, which has two bases: the spherical ending Linga (phallus) and the flat-plate Yoni (vulva). The Lihga has three parts, i e, basement, central part, and spherical cylinder, respectively representing evolution, existence, and involution (Fig 3). This image, which represents Siva, symbolizes the supreme state of unity, and stands for all knowledge (Singh 1987, pp. 310311). In an extended form of this statue, a small Lihga is also shown. Together these two liflgas show the sense of evolution-existence and continuity through the process of reproduction, and finally indicate the ultimate reality of unity between Man and the Cosmos. In Hindu symbolism a point represents the infinite; thus interconnecting three points through wish, intellect, and action results in a triangle symbolizing "energy". Rotation of these can yield combinations of 6, 8, 10, ... angles, ultimately emerging into a circle. This idea indicates the sense of expanding universe, commonly referred in Hindu and Buddhist mythologies as man.d.ala. The mand.ala in practice is comparable to lifeworld and is regulated by the dynamic force of action, karma - ,,the action principle of play", where the total universe "is in

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

142

But I am not bound by this vast work of creation. I am and I watch the drama of works. I watch and in its work of creation Nature brings forth all that moves and moves not: and thus the revolutions of the world go round. The idea of divine play is regulated by the cosmic dance in which together they p a r t a k e in the processes of annihilation and creation. Following the discovery of m o d e r n physics, it is known that "subatomic particles are an unceasing dance of annihilation and creation" ( Z u k o v 1979, p. 217). The same idea of cosmic dance has been p r o j e c t e d into the psychological reality in H i n d u mythology, especially in the image of the dancing god Siva. Siva's dance "symbolizes the eternity of life-death rhythm which goes on in endless cycles" (Capra 1976, p. 230). A t the level of experience, ~iva's dance represents the daily r h y t h m of birth and death as found in the literature of Indian mysticism. Z i m m e r (1972, p. 155) has explicitly explained the overall meaning of the Siva's dance (Fig 4): His gestures wild and full of grace, precipitate the cosmic illusion; his flying arms and legs and the swaying of his torso produce - indeed, they are - the continuous creation-destruction of the universe, death exactly balancing birth, annihilation and the end of every coming-forth.

Fig 4

Na.tarfija: Siva as cosmic dancer

action and everything is dynamically connected with everything else" (Capra 1976, p. 78). In fact, karma is the force of creation. To realize the unity and h a r m o n y of N a t u r e one has to be free from the bonds of karma, as p r o c l a i m e d in the Bhagavad-Gftd, B G , (Ill. 27-28): All actions take place in time by the interweaving of the forces of Nature, but the man lost in selfish delusion thinks that he himself is the actor. But the man who knows the relation between the forces of Nature and actions, sees how some forces of Nature work upon other forces of Nature, and becomes not their slave. The experience of that state of wordly freeness helps to "get liberated" from the world, what is called as rnoksa ("liberation") in Hindu philosophy (cf. Capra 1976, p. 79). In H i n d u mythology the universe is always conceived of as an organic and rhythmically moving cosmos, which is created through G o d ' s sacrifice - a divine play, led, p e r f o r m e d on the stage of world. In divine play the U l t i m a t e Reality ( G o d ) transformed himself in the world. This i d e a is c o m p a r a b l e to that of m o d e r n cosmological interpretations of an expanding-contracting universe. In the B G (IX.7-10) L o r d K.rsna said: At the end of the night of time all things return to my Nature; and when the new day of time begins I bring them again into light. Thus through my Nature I bring forth all creation and this rolls around in the circles of times.

C a p r a (1976, p. 233) has rightly concluded that "for the m o d e r n physicists, then, Siva's dance is the dance of subatomic matter". These symbols manifest the biological and cultural processes which bring H i n d u society to its full potential. They, in fact, are the result of relatedness and reciprocity, c o m p a r a b l e to that of biological life as the product of the union of male and female and also the unity b e t w e e n nature/cosmos and humanity.

Organic Elements of Nature The Puranic theory of creation refers to B r a h m a as

Svayambhu, one who is born at his will, He, being desirous of progeny, creates water first. H e deposited in the water a seed out of which N a r a was b o r n and was thereafter called Nfiraya.na. L a t e r from his naval a golden egg arose which gave birth to Brahmfi, who divided the egg and m a d e earth and heaven. F r o m that m o v e m e n t the creation of all things began to take place (Brahma Purdna, pp. 137-140). A similar story also n a r r a t e d in the Bhdgavata Purdna 0.3.2-5) is that Primordial Man was lying down in the water of the universe, The Mahdbhdrata (XII. 182.14-19) states that the S u p r e m e G o d created Primordial Man who first m a d e sky; from sky water is m a d e and from the seed of water fire and air - these latter two together m a d e the earth; hence in a metaphysical sense, these elements are not s e p a r a t e d from each other. A l t o g e t h e r these five are

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

considered as the five f u n d a m e n t a l organic elements of N a t u r e (Mahdtattvas). These elements are r e l a t e d to one another by means of their intrinsic nature leading to a b o n d among creatures. Thus, in this way "nature, cosmos, and humanity form a whole, and that whole means holy" (Buttimer 1989, p. 263). In fact, "water plays a cardinal role in most creation myths, frequently associated with female element, in reciprocal relationship with the male elements of sky and earth" (ibid.: 265). W a t e r serves as a unifying fluid b e t w e e n sky/heaven and earth as described in the R.g Veda (X.90.11-14). iAccording to the ~atapatha Brdhmana (I.8.1.1-6), L o r d Visn. u's first incarnation, out of ten, as Fish symbolizes the origin of life in water; in the form of Fish he had saved organic life-seeds from the great cosmic flood (Singh 1987, p. 308). Thus, water is r e g a r d e d as the primary materialization of Vi.sn.u's mdyd-energy; and therefore k n o w n also as a visible manifestation of the divine essence (cf. Z i m m e r 1972, p. 34).

Water In most of the ancient cultures, water has been described as an extraordinarily powerful nature-symbol. Water symbolizes the whole of potentiality: it is the fons et origo, the source of all possible existence ... water symbolizes the primal substance from which all forms came and to which they will return. (Eliade 1979, p. 188) In H i n d u mythology, water is considered as the first sacred fluid for purificatory ritual. The Yqjur Veda (II.20.7) states: " H u m a n offerings in yajtias (sacrifices) purify the water sucked by the sun in clouds with the air. T h e n that water rains and makes the medicines on earth sound". In the Chgmdogya Upanis.ad (VII.10.1) water is described as an attribute linking subtler fire and grosser earth in different forms: This earth, the air, the heavens, the mountains, gods and men, domestic animals and birds, vegetables and trees, wild creatures down to worms, flies and ants, are nothing but this water under solid conditions. The environmental ethics and crisis of water pollution have been realized in H i n d u thought in ancient period. O n e of the hymns of the R.g Veda (VII.49.2) states: "The water in the sky, the waters of rivers, and the waters in well whose source is ocean, m a y all these sacred waters protect me". To maintain the sacred p o w e r of water norms have also been suggested: " O n e should not cause urine, stool, cough in the water. A n y t h i n g which is mixed with these impious objects; b l o o d and poison should not be thrown into water" (Manu Smrti IV.56). The i m p o r t a n c e of water is fully e l a b o r a t e d in the Mahdbhdrata (XII.183.2-4): The creator first produced water for the maintenance of life among human beings. The water enriches life and its absence destroys all creatures and plant-life.

143

E v e n in c. 2nd century A D , Caraka, one of the p r o p o u n d e r s of H i n d u medicine, p r o c l a i m e d that it seems that all the stars, planets, moon, sun, air, fire, and nature or directions have been polluted. Seasons also appear to work against the nature. The Earth in spite of being full of its virtues has lost its fluid in all medicinal plants .... When such pollution will occur human beings will suffer from diseases. (Caraka Sa/nhitd, Virndnasth(ma III.2) Air The second organic element is air (v~yu). In later Vedic mythologies Prfina (breath of life) is identified as the superior vital force r e p r e s e n t e d with the G o d of W i n d (Vfiyu), who is responsible for the b r e a t h of universe and life, thus forming a cosmic integrity with Nature. One of the texts says: "Vfiyu is our Prfina" (Vyds.abh~syam 3.44). In the R V , air is called Vfita, who is able to prolong our life: " M a y Vfita blow His balm on us. V~ta who brings well-being and health to our hearts. May H e lengthen our life" (RV, X.186.1). A later text, Manu Smr.ti (III.77), says that the life of all creatures depends u p o n air. F u r t h e r , it is said that the b o d y of all organic beings can be sustained only as long as the Prfi.na inhabits it: " A l l these creatures enter with the b r e a t h (into the b o d y ) , and with the b r e a t h they again d e p a r t out" ( C U , 1.11.5). This is c o m p a r a b l e to a law of physics which states that "in the air, atoms collide millions of times every second and yet return to their original form after each collision" (Capra 1976, p. 57). Fire Fire, the third organic element, has played a m a j o r role in m a n y mythologies and functions as a symbol relating to the dual character of h u m a n experience: warming and destruction (Dillistone 1986, p. 64). In H i n d u mythology fire is conceived as divine body, Agni, and accepted as the source of rain and also as a guest of all natural elements. The SB (V.3.5.17) says: " F r o m Agni is born steam, from steam the cloud, and from the cloud rain". Agni is also considered the son of water (RV, II.35). H e is referred to as the ultimate being with various kinships (RV, X.7.3). Earth T h e E a r t h is perceived as mother, therefore a p r a y e r runs;

The earth which possesses ocean, rivers and other bodies of water, and which gives us land to produce foodgrains and on which human beings depend for their survival, grant us all the eatable and drinkable objects like milk, fruit, water and cereals (AV, XII.1.3). The Vedic p r a y e r further states ( A V , XII.1.27): On whom the trees, plants and herbs stand evermore immovable, we pay homage to that all-supporting motherland, whose independence we firmly protect.

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

144

Hindus have a special reverence for E a r t h , and very c o m m o n l y refer to her as m o t h e r and symbolize her as cow. E a c h agricultural season opens and closes with rituals of earth worship. The earth has b e e n of i m m e n s e symbolic significance in H i n d u mythology, particularly with respect to identification, security, and maintenance of existence and continuity of h u m a n beings. Since ancient times Hindus have been attached to agrarian life, the sense of attachment to earth has led to the idea of earth as goddess, mother, and overall the " g e n e r a t o r of natural life". In other words, the strong attachment with the earth shows a whole philosophy of the existence of mankind, i e, "as sacred, a symbol of the ultimate fount of being" (Dillistone 1986, p. 45). T h e earth has also been described as possessing h u m a n qualities which pass from earth to man, and from one generation to another. Says the M b h (XII.184.27-29): All human beings acquired from the Earth such characteristics as fluid (rasa), form (r@a), smell (gandha), touch (sparga) and sound (gabda), hence our relationship to it is more eternal and maternal as one acquires many attributes from his mother.

This verse metaphorically illustrates harmonic integration in Nature, and acknowledges the i m p o r t a n c e for h u m a n peace, happiness, and tranquility with respect to the h u m a n quest for self-identity in the universe. This vision has also been described with respect to the incarnation of L o r d Vi.s.nu, the p r o t e c t o r god among the H i n d u Trinity. A c c o r d i n g to mythology, there exist incarnations of Vi.s.nu, of which the first five are considered fundamental, referring symbolically to the b o d y and making for a symmetry of the origin of human being and his cosmic relationship (Tab 1).

Home: Human Integrity in Space May my motherland, bearing folk speaking different languages, holding different religious views, treating them all as residents of the same house, pour, like a constant cow that never fails, a thousand streams of treasure to enrich me (AV, XII.1.44) T h e idea of h o m e in H i n d u mythology refers to the harmonic relationship between h u m a n beings and the earth as stated in the A V ( X I I . I . l l ) :

Sky Sky is considered often as the first element. T h e R V (I.90.7) describes sky as the father and the earth as mother. Sky and space are referred to as synonymous with one a n o t h e r in the texts of the Vedic period. Sky is also conceived as dwelling place of the forces of Nature (air, water, fire, and so on), where the e m b r y o of universe d e v e l o p e d ( A V , 1.11.2). This is fully e l a b o r a t e d in the C U (III.19.1-2): In the beginning this world was merely non-being. It was existent. It developed, it turned into an egg ... It was split asunder. One of the two egg-shells became one silver, another gold. That which was silver is the earth. That which was gold is the sky. A c c o r d i n g to the Yuktid[pikd (138) the sky possesses the three qualities motion, limitlessness, and fathomlessness. Its quality is symbolized with sound (VP 14.26). Sky as space "is nothing but a m o d e of particularization and that it has no real existence of its own . . . . Space exists only in relation to our particularizing consciousness", as expressed by Agvagho.sa, a 1st century A D Buddhist Patriarch (Suzuki 1900, p. 107). This idea is very close to the theory of relativity which explains the relative and changing properties of Nature. E a c h of the above five elements according to H i n d u mythologies is symbolized as some part of the b o d y of p r i m o r d i a l man, and the divine being is the inner soul of all. Says the Mun. d.aka Upanis.ad (II.1.4): Fire is his head, his eyes, the moon and sun; the regions of space, his ears, his voice, the revealed Vedas; wind his breath; his heart, the whole world, out of his feet, the earth. Truely he is the inner soul of all!

O Earth, pleasant by the hills and snow-clad mountains and thy wood-lands! On the earth - brown, black, ruddy and of all colours - the firm earth, the earth protected by the Supreme Deity, upon this earth I - unconquered, unslain, unwounded, have set my foot. The idea of h o m e is derived from the word vdstu, connoting residence, but later on it is used to denote the habitat space including the ground, building, conveyance, couch, and a setting related to the attachment of humans to the sun, the wind, and the water (Mdnasdra III.1.7, cf. A c h a r y a 1933). The structural plan of H i n d u houses are described in m a n y ancient texts, among which the Matsya Purgm.a, M P , a text of 6th century A D , describes house as symbol of body. The MP (253.21) prescribes 81 squares system ( 9 x 9 ) , where a particular deity presides over a particular square. In this plan there lie 9 grids in each side, including four open grids showing cardinal gates; the inner portion is divided into nine grids, each representing a part of the b o d y of the divine image (Fig 5). The use of b o d y symbolism represents a microcosm reflecting a macrocosm (Singh 1988, p. 445). The plan represents the symbolic m e r g e r of body, space, and cosmos (Beck 1976; also Kramrisch 1976, vol. 1, pp. 7-97). This plan has three forms: the base representing the face of " F o u n d a t i o n M a n " ; the s u p e r i m p o s e d divine base and the squares for divinities; and finally the schematic form of the house plan. In sum the Foundation Man establishes the house's diagonal accommodation to the cardinal directions while suggesting through the dispositions of his organs and limbs some contrasting properties and differentiated uses of the house's four corners (Moore 1990, p. 182) T h e correspondence b e t w e e n b o d y and house plan also reveals cosmic perception, as noted by Eliade: "Having a

GeoJournal 2 6 . 2 / 1 9 9 2

, , ATIO.

:, :

145

:,,::,:

STRANDIPRIMORDIAL

:: ORECT, ON::' C O L O J . : :

:

5.

:: :: ~ '

:"

, UPWARD:: :: ,:CRYSTAL

¸:5¸¸:¸

¸¸

::

:

IDENT

.

.

.

.

.

:

::: ,: :EYE,::,

::: : :::: :: ::,: .......: = i

VnP.VisnuPurfina.AU.AitareyaUpanisad:see Singh1987:308 Tab 1

The five incarnations of Lord Visnu and their symbolicassociation

body and taking up residence in a house are equivalent to assuming an existential situation in the cosmos" (Eliade 1959, p. 175). The spatial interrelationship among the uses of space, cosmic meaning, and human adjustment prevails in the Hindu home. To maintain the space-body interrelationship and the structural plan transformed into divine setting, the Hindu performs many domestic rituals (for calendar of festivities see Singh 1990). The R.g Veda (VII.54.1-3) mentions the rite of worshipping the Lord of habitation, generally performed on all auspicious occasions - as performed by Rfima when he had made his hut-resort in the forest (VR, II.56.23, 32). In the ancient texts dealing with domestic rites (Grhya-sOtras), details of such rituals are described. The foundational ritual in house construction involves the placing of a tortoise image in the pit, then an image of a serpent, followed with brick. This common practice has the symbolic meaning of merging the earth and the divine abode (heaven). The image of tortoise represents the second incarnation of Vi.s.nu who saved the earth (Tab 1), the serpent symbolizing the great snake on whose hood the earth is settled down, and finally the brick symbolizing the earth. Through such a ritual, the house is transformed into a divine abode and a representation of the whole world. This sense led to the development of

an idea of "the whole world as one family" (Vasudhaiva

kut. umbaka/n ). Domestic rituals also connote the relationships among purposes (motives) and the temporal and spatial dimensions of the organizational framework. At least five pattern s can be identified in the coordination of worshippers in terms of time and status: gradual ascent, gradual descent, gradual ascent-and-descent, concentric rings, and side-by-side worship. The first four patterns form the frame of an integrated system where all four take place together at different levels, forming a complex and interlinking network, ultimately resulting in forming the ritual man.d.ala (Singh 1988, pp. 446-452).

Legacy for Harmony Like most of the ancient rituals the Hindu rituals also attempt to create a harmonious world and thus validate human existence (Stutley 1980, p. 126). The concept of harmonious unity within the body itself and in society was proclaimed in the creation myth narrated in the RV (X.90: Purus.as~kta) which refers to how four classes of society and their appropriate tasks in society came from the body of cosmic man (Puru.sa): the Brfihma.na (priest)

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

146

human

b o d y r e p r e s e n t s t h e h o m o l o g i c a l l o f o r m of t h e

cosmos.

T h e b o d y - a n a l o g y is associated with t h e individual (self) w h e r e diffused o r i e n t a t i o n is combined with the high goal of complete dependence upon, and union with, the Ultimate Atrnd (immutable inner world) .... All men, things, and gods are intrinsically part and parcel of that same great inner world (Hsu 1963, p. 244) T h e feeling of this reality can p r o m o t e global h u m a n i s m ( " w h o l e w o r l d as o n e f a m i l y " ) . T h e Atharva Veda (III.30) has v e r y clearly e x p r e s s e d this realization: I

_ _ N

Fig 5

House as symbol of body: placement of divinities

Of one heart and of one mind, Free from hatred do I make you, Take delight in one another, As the cow does in her baby calf. Loyal to his sire the son be, Of one mind, too, with his mother; Sweet and kindly language ever, Let the wife speak to her husband. Brother shall not hate the brother, And the sister not the sister, Of one mind and of one intent, Speak ye words of kindness only. A t p r e s e n t t h e w h o l e w o r l d is facing the crisis of t h o u g h t p o l l u t i o n that can be r e s o l v e d to a certain e x t e n t with the self-realization p r o p o u n d e d in a n c i e n t H i n d u t h o u g h t . U l t i m a t e l y , "if n o t h i n g in all t h e u n i v e r s e is frail as m a n , n o t h i n g likewise is so divine as h e ! " ( A r v i n d o 1979, p. 14).

Acknowledgements f r o m the m o u t h , t h e K.satriya ( w a r r i o r ) the arms, the Vaigya ( m e r c h a n t ) t h e thighs, and the Sfidra ( l a b o u r class) the feet. This " f o u r - f o l d " s y m b o l i c structure of the

T h e a u t h o r is e x t r e m e l y grateful to P r o f e s s o r A n n e B u t t i m e r and to J o h n van B u r e n for critical c o m m e n t s on this p a p e r .

References Primary sources

~B, ~atapatha Brdhmana. Albrecht Weber, (ed.), Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi 1964.

AV, Atharva Veda Sa/nhitd, Commentary of Sftyal?ficfirya. Pt. Shankar Panduranga, (ed.), Govt. Central Book Depot, Bombay 1895-1898.

Upanisadas: Aitareya (AU), Chdndogya (CU), and Mulj(laka (MU), see Radhakrishnan 1953.

BG, Bhagavad-Gft& S. Radhakrlshnan, (ed.), George Allen & Unwin, London 1956. BP, Brahma Purdna. M. Roy Mora, (ed.), Venkatesvara Steam Press, Gopal Printing Works, Calcutta 1954. Caraka Samhitd. Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series. Varanasi I974. Mbh, Mahdbhdrata. V.S. Sukthankar et al., (eds.), 19 Vols., Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 1933-1959. Manu Smrti or Mdnava Dharmaddstra. August Loiseleur Deslongchamps, (ed.), Levrault, Paris 1830. Mdnasdra (see Acharya 1933). MP, Matsya Purdna. Nandalal Mora, (ed.), Gopal Printing Works, Calcutta 1954. RV, Rg Veda Samhit~, Commentary of Sfiya.nficfirya. F. Max Mfiller, (ed.), Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi 1966.

VnP, Visnu Purdna. H.H. Wilson, (ed. and trans.), Punthi Pustak, Calcutta 1972. VP, Vdmana Purdna. A.S. Gupta, (ed.), All India Kashiraj Trust, Varanasi 1964. VR, Rdmayatja of Vfilm~ki. G.H. Bhatta et al. (eds.), 7 Vols. Oriental Institute, Baroda 1960-1975. YV, Yajur Veda Sa/nhitd. Commentary of Sfiyanficfirya, F. Max Miiller (ed.), Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi 1965. YuktidFpikd. Sri Venkatesvara Steam Press, Bombay 1917. Other References Acharya, P.K.: The Architecture of Mfinasfira. Oxford University Press, London 1933. Arvindo: The Supreme Discovery. Arvindo Ashram, Pondichery 1979.

GeoJournal 26.2/1992

Beck, B.E.F.: The symbolic merger of body, space and cosmos in Hindu Tamil Nadu. Contributions to Indian Sociology (n.s.) I0, 213-243 (1976) Buttimer, A.: wholeness. Place and Press, New

Nature, water symbols and the human quest for In: Seamon, D.; Mugerauer, R. (eds.), Dwelling, Environment, pp. 257-280. Columbia University York 1989.

Capra, F.: The Tao of Physics. Bantam, New York 1976. Dillistone, F.W.: The Power of Symbols in Religion and Culture. Crossroad Pub. Co., New York 1986. Eliade, M.: The Sacred and the Profane. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York i959. Eliade, M.: Patterns in Comparative Religion. Sheed and Ward, New York 1979. Hsu, F.L.K.: Clan, Caste, and Club. D. Van Nostrand, New Jersey 1963. Kashikar, C.G.: The idea of ultimate reality and meaning according to the Kalpa SOtras. Ultimate Reality and Meaning 2, 172-187 (1979)

147

Robinson, J.B.: The quagmire of phenomena: an examination of the relationship between man and nature. In: Wood J.D. (ed.), Rethinking Geographical Inquiry, Geogr. Monograph no. 11, pp. 177-265. Atkinson College, York University, Downsview, Ontario 1982. Singh, R.P.B.: Toward myth, cosmos, space and ma.nqtala in India. A search in the geography of belief systems. National Geographical Journal of India 33, 305-326 (1987) Singh, R.P.B.: Interplay of sacred time and sacred space in Hindu belief system. In: Kreisel, W. (ed.), Geisteshaltung und Umwelt, (Spiritual Attitudes and Environment) pp. 439-454, AGGR/WF Band l, Alano edition Herodot, Aachen 1988. Singh, R.P.B.: Time and Hindu rituals in Vftrfinasi: A study of sacrality and cycles. In: Gopal, L; Dub@, D.P. (eds.), Pilgrimage Studies: Text and Context, pp. 67-72. Society of Pilgrimage Studies, Allahadad 1990. Smith, B.K.: The unity of ritual. Indo-lranian Journal 29, 79-96 (1986) Staal, J.F.: Ritual syntax. In: Nagatomi. M. et al. (eds.), Sanskrit and Indian Studies, 119-142. Reidel, Dordrecht 1979.

Kramrisch, S.: The Hindu Temple, 2 Vols. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 1976.

Stutley, M.: Ancient Indian Magic and Folklore. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 1980.

Lannoy, R.: The Speaking Tree. A Study in Indian Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, London 1971.

Suzuki, D.T. (ed. and translated): Ashvaghosa's The Awakening of Faith. Open Court, Chicago 1900.

Lincoln, B.: Myth, Cosmos, and Society. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1986.

Toynbee, A.: A Study of History. Thames and Hudson, London 1976.

Moore, M.A.: The Kerala house as a Hindu cosmos. In: McKim Marriott (ed.), India Through Hindu Categories, pp. 169-202. Sage, New Delhi 1990.

White L. Jr.: The historical roots of our ecological crisis. Science 155, no.3767, 12 (1967).

Radhakrishnan, S. (ed. and trans.): The Principal Upani.sads. George Allen & Unwin, London 1953.

Zimmer, H.R.: Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1972. Zukav, G.: The Dancing Wu Li Masters. Bantam, New York 1979.