J Child Fam Stud (2010) 19:101–108 DOI 10.1007/s10826-009-9289-3
ORIGINAL PAPER
Parenting and Friendship Quality as Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Early Adolescence Alden E. Gaertner Æ Paula J. Fite Æ Craig R. Colder
Published online: 30 June 2009 Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009
Abstract Research indicates both parents and peers influence child and adolescent adjustment outcomes. Moreover, friendship quality has been found to buffer the influence of parenting on adolescent adjustment, particularly externalizing symptoms. Little to no research, however, has longitudinally examined whether friendship quality moderates the relation between parenting and adolescent internalizing symptoms. Accordingly, our study examines friendship quality as a moderator of the relation between parenting (positive parenting, poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, parental involvement) and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms over one year’s time. The sample included 65 early adolescents (67% male), ages 10–13 at initial assessment. Friendship quality buffered the effect of positive parenting on internalizing symptoms over time. However, no moderating effects for externalizing symptoms were found. Implications and further directions are discussed. Keywords Early adolescence Parenting Peers Friendship quality Internalizing and externalizing symptoms
A. E. Gaertner (&) P. J. Fite Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Austin Peay Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA e-mail:
[email protected] C. R. Colder Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York
Introduction Previous research indicates that as children transition from childhood to early adolescence, parent and peer relationships are particularly salient for socialization processes (Furman and Buhrmester 1985, 1992), as both are associated with a host of psychosocial outcomes (Gadeyne et al. 2004; Gauze et al. 1996; Keefe and Berndt 1996). Moreover, friendship quality has been found to buffer the influence of parenting behavior on adolescent problem behavior (Lansford et al. 2003). No researchers, however, have examined friendship quality as a moderator in the relation between parenting practices and internalizing symptoms. Investigation of these relations is important because during the transition to early adolescence increasing amounts of time is spent with peers, and thus, peer relationships may provide an important point of intervention, particularly when parenting practices are poor. Accordingly, we longitudinally examine parenting (i.e., positive parenting, poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and parental involvement) and friendship quality as predictors of change in adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms over 1 year, and whether friendship quality moderates the relation between parenting and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Parenting practices have been established as important contributors to child and adolescent development, particularly the development of externalizing symptoms. Rubin and Mills (1991) note that a great deal of empirical attention has been aimed at examining externalizing symptoms because externalizing symptoms are highly stable and often precede antisocial behavior in adulthood. Additionally, externalizing symptoms are relatively easy to detect and tend to evoke negative responses from others, particularly in the school and daycare setting. Rubin and
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Mills (1991), propose that externalizing behavior problems (i.e., aggressive and delinquent behavior) develop from parenting practices that are characterized by a lack of behavioral control. Indeed, behavioral control, often defined as parental monitoring of a child’s behavior and limit setting, is associated with decreased incidence of externalizing behavior in adolescence (Aunola and Nurmi 2005; De Kemp et al. 2006; Richards et al. 2004). Despite clear associations between parenting practices and externalizing behavior problems, relatively less empirical attention has been focused on parenting behavior and the development of internalizing symptoms. Bayer et al. (2006) note, that internalizing difficulties, like externalizing symptoms, are relatively stable over time and are just as problematic for the children and adolescents who experience them. Social learning theory may be instrumental in understanding how parenting practices contribute to emotional development in childhood and adolescence. Parenting that is overly involved and overly controlling may provide reinforcement for child anxiety and distress. Too much parental involvement or control relative to a child’s developmental ability may encourage anxiety and undermine the child’s sense of autonomy, which may foster dependence on the parent, offering little opportunity for the development of effective coping skills, ultimately resulting in the development of internalizing difficulties (Bayer et al. 2006; Rubin and Mills 1991). Consistent with this hypothesis, there is research to suggest that overly controlling and overly involved parenting is predictive of internalizing difficulties in childhood and adolescence (Aunola and Nurmi 2005; Bayer et al. 2006; Mills and Rubin 1998; Rubin and Mills 1991). In contrast, positive parenting (characterized by warmth and nurturance, the encouragement of autonomy, and attunement to the child’s needs) is linked to healthy psychosocial adjustment in childhood and adolescence (Bayer et al. 2006). Because peers increase in importance in the developmental transition from late childhood to early adolescence, researchers are also interested in relations between friendships, particularly the quality of friendships, and developmental outcomes. Friendship quality is defined on a continuum of positive and negative features. Friendships high in positive features (e.g., intimacy, companionship, loyalty, and pro-social behavior) and low in negative features (e.g., conflict and competition) are considered high in quality. Conversely, friendships low in positive features and high in negative features are considered low in quality (Berndt 1998). Research indicates high quality friendships are associated with fewer externalizing problems, such as decreased likelihood of engaging in antisocial behaviors such as bullying (Bollmer et al. 2005), and relatively fewer behavior problems (Hartup 1995). Moreover, high quality
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friendships are associated with fewer internalizing symptoms such as feelings of loneliness (Parker and Asher 1993) and anxiety (Fordham and Stevenson-Hinde 1999). Furthermore, research indicates high friendship quality may act as a buffer for maladaptive influences, including poor parenting practices. Researchers of child resiliency have found evidence to suggest that positive peer experiences can potentially moderate the relation between poor parenting and child and adolescent adjustment outcomes (Gauze et al. 1996; Lansford et al. 2003; Schwartz et al. 2000). For example, Lansford et al. (2003) found that friendship quality moderated the relation between negative parenting (i.e., unilateral parenting, low supervision and awareness, and harsh discipline) and externalizing behavior problems. This finding is consistent with Furman and Buhrmester’s (1985) social theory, which suggests that children obtain different provisions, or aspects of social support, from different types of relationships. Moreover, obtaining social provisions overlaps significantly across relationships. Subsequently, when one relationship is lacking in social provisions, other relationships become increasingly important provisional resources. This is particularly true during late childhood and early adolescence when parents and peers are both important providers of social support (Furman and Buhrmester 1992). It is possible therefore, that friendships become increasingly important sources of social support when parenting practices are poor, serving to weaken the association between poor parenting practices and maladaptive behavioral and emotional outcomes in late childhood and early adolescence. In sum, we longitudinally examine the prospective effects of positive parenting, poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and parental involvement on internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the moderating effect of friendship quality on these relations. These parenting dimensions were selected because they are frequently targeted for parenting interventions, and previous literature has associated these dimensions of parenting with both internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Bayer et al. 2006; Frick et al. 1999). We expect poor parenting behavior, in particular, low levels of positive parenting, to be associated with increased internalizing symptoms over time. Consistent with previous literature, we anticipated that externalizing symptoms would be more closely associated with parenting dimensions related to behavioral control, specifically parental monitoring and inconsistent discipline. Additionally, high levels of friendship quality are expected to be associated with decreases in both internalizing and externalizing symptoms over time. Friendship quality is expected to moderate the relation between parenting and child symptomology such that high levels of friendship quality are expected to weaken the
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association between poor parenting, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms over time
Method Participants Participants were recruited using newspaper and radio advertisements and flyers distributed throughout the community. An oversampling of children with externalizing behavior problems were recruited using an abbreviated version of the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Questionnaire (Pelham et al. 1992) to increase representation of problem behavior. Although disruptive behavior was oversampled in our study, children without disruptive behavior were also included in the sample, and thus the full range of problem behavior is represented. Because internalizing symptoms and externalizing symptoms often co-occur (e.g., Achenbach 1992; Lewinsohn et al. 1993), but externalizing symptoms are easier to detect, our sample was well suited for the goals of our study. Data from 65 children (67% male) and their primary caregivers who participated in both years of assessment were included in analyses. The majority of primary caregiver respondents were mothers (91%), while 8% were fathers, and 1% consisted of ‘‘other relatives.’’ Children ranged from 10 to 13 years of age (M = 11.91 years, SD = 1.30) at the initial assessment. The majority of the sample was Caucasian (75%), with the remainder of the sample comprised of African American (11.5%), Biracial (11.5%) or other ethnic (4%) backgrounds. Median family income was $45,000 (range $6,000–$155,000). T-tests and chi-square tests were estimated in order to determine if there were differences in participants who completed both assessments and those who did not complete the follow up interview (n = 21). Participants did not differ on gender (v2 = 2.91, p [ .05), internalizing symptoms, age, parental monitoring, positive parenting, parental involvement, inconsistent discipline or friendship quality (ts = -.82 to 1.43, ps [ .05). The only significant difference found between groups was for externalizing behavior problems (t = -2.21, p = .03) such that externalizing behavior was slightly higher for those who did not complete the follow up assessment (M = 1.53 vs. M = 1.40, d = .50, medium effect). Procedures Caregivers and children came into the lab on two separate occasions, approximately 1 year apart. At each assessment, assent and consent forms were read aloud by the experimenter and signed by the caregiver and the child. Child and
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caregiver interviews were conducted separately to ensure caregivers and children were able to respond in confidence. At both initial and follow-up assessment points, caregivers and children were administered questions via computer regarding child temperament, problem behavior, peer relationships, and parenting behavior. Instructions and questions were read out loud to participants, and the interviewers entered the responses directly into the computer program. The first assessment interview was 3 h in duration, the families were compensated $72, and the child received a small prize. The second assessment was 1.5 h in duration, the families were compensated $30, and the child received a small prize. Measures Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were assessed at both time points using caregiver reports of the Internalizing and Externalizing scales of the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach 1991). The internalizing scale is comprised of 31 items including ‘‘Would rather be alone than with others’’ and ‘‘Too fearful or anxious.’’ The externalizing scale is comprised of 33 items including ‘‘Breaks rules at home, school, or elsewhere’’ and ‘‘Cruelty, bullying, or meanness to others.’’ Participants responded using a 3-point scale (1 = not true to 3 = very or often true). This measure has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of child problem behavior (Achenbach and Rescorla 2001). Further validity of caregiver report of internalizing and externalizing symptoms on this measure has been established (De Los Reyes and Kazdin 2005; Rey et al. 1992). Internal consistencies in our sample were high for both internalizing (.85 and .87) and externalizing (.92 and .90) symptoms. Achenbach (1991) has recommended using raw scores for research purposes; accordingly, mean raw scores were computed at both time points and used for analyses. Parenting Behavior Caregivers reported on their parenting behavior at the initial data point using four of the five subscales (poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, positive parenting, and involvement) of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Shelton et al. 1996). The corporal punishment scale was not included because of the low internal consistency associated with this 3-item subscale (a = .58). The poor parental monitoring scale consists of 10 items including ‘‘Your child goes out without a set time to be home,’’ and is a measure of the amount of parental or adult supervision provided. The inconsistent discipline scale consists of six items including ‘‘The punishment you give
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friendship quality, and adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms over the period of 1 year. Internalizing symptoms 1 year later were regressed on baseline internalizing symptoms, parenting, and friendship quality. Age, gender, and externalizing behavior, as assessed at baseline, were also included as covariates in analyses. Externalizing symptoms 1 year later were regressed on baseline externalizing symptoms, parenting, and friendship quality. Age, gender, and internalizing behavior were also included as covariates in analyses. All variables were standardized in order to aid in the interpretation of interaction effects. Because of the small sample size, each friendship quality X parenting interaction term was examined in a separate regression model for both internalizing and externalizing symptoms to reduce the number of parameters estimated in a single model. Significant interactions were conditioned at high (?1 SD) and low (-1 SD) levels of the moderator to determine the nature of the interaction (Aiken and West 1991).
your child depends on your mood,’’ and is a measure of how consistently parental limit setting is administered. The positive parenting scale consists of 6 items including ‘‘You praise your child if he/she behaves well,’’ and is a measure of positive parental reinforcement. The involvement scale consists of 10 items including ‘‘You ask your child what his or her plans are for the coming day,’’ and is a measure of how involved parents are in their child’s daily activities. Internal consistencies of the subscales were good (.76 to .83). Caregivers responded to the items using a 5-point likert scale (1 = never to 5 = almost always). Average scale scores were computed and used for analyses. Friendship Quality Friendship quality was assessed using child reports of the Friendship Quality Questionnaire (Parker and Asher 1993) at the initial assessment. The 40-item measure consists of six subscales (validation and caring, conflict resolution, conflict and betrayal, help and guidance, companionship and recreation, and intimate exchange), including ‘‘My best friend makes me feel good about my ideas.’’ Children responded using a 5-point likert scale (1 = not at all true to 5 = really true). This measure has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of friendship quality (Parker and Asher 1993), and the internal consistency in our sample was adequate (a = .77). Mean scores were computed and used for analyses.
Descriptive Statistics All correlations, means, and standard deviations of observed mean subscale scores can be found in Table 1. The correlation between internalizing symptoms at both time points suggested stability across the year. The correlation between externalizing symptoms at both time points suggested high stability across the year. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were correlated at both the initial assessment, and 1 year later. Parental monitoring was positively related to internalizing symptoms at baseline, and parental involvement was negatively related to internalizing symptoms at baseline. None of the parenting dimensions were correlated with internalizing symptoms
Results Multiple regression analyses were conducted using SAS software to examine the relation between parenting,
Table 1 Correlations, means, and standard deviations of observed study variables 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1. Time 1 internalizing symptoms 2. Time 2 internalizing symptoms
.64*
3. Time 1 externalizing symptoms
.46*
4. Time 2 externalizing symptoms
.36*
.39*
5. Parental monitoring
.26*
.06
.22 .82* .36*
.29*
6. Positive parenting
-.01
-.03
-.14
-.07
-.35*
7. Parental involvement
-.26*
-.13
-.36*
-.24
-.40*
8. Inconsistent discipline
.18
9. Friendship quality
-.17
.13 -.26*
10. Age
.18
.06
11. Sex
.04 1.30 .23
Mean SD * p \ .05
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.23 -.18
.26* -.17
.33* -.21
.27*
.24*
.50*
-.01
.17
.11
1.29 .21
1.40 .27
1.93 .25
.64* .05 .25*
-.20 .29*
-.04
-.18
-.04
.01
-.22
.16
.03
.03
.03
-.30*
1.60 .47
4.09 .57
3.96 .48
2.54 .60
3.24 .59
.08 11.91 1.30
1.67 .47
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Internalizing Symptoms
was unrelated to change in adolescent internalizing symptoms over 1 year (b = .11, p = .50). However, at low levels of friendship quality, low levels of positive parenting were associated with increases in adolescent internalizing symptoms over 1 year (b = -.32, p = .04); as seen in Fig. 1. Although not statistically significant, there was a trend for friendship quality to moderate the relation between parental involvement and adolescent internalizing symptoms over time (b = .19, p = .09). At high levels of friendship quality, high levels of involvement were marginally significantly associated with increases in adolescent internalizing symptoms over time (b = .34, p = .06). However, at low levels of friendship quality, parental involvement was unrelated to change in adolescent internalizing symptoms over 1 year (b = -.04, p = .84); as seen in Fig. 2. Also noteworthy, high levels of friendship
First-order effects of internalizing symptoms indicated the stability of internalizing behavior over time (b = .65, p \ .001). Friendship quality significantly predicted adolescent internalizing symptoms over time, such that high levels of friendship quality were associated with decreases in adolescent internalizing symptoms (b = -.23, p = .03) 1 year later. Age, gender, externalizing behavior, and parenting dimensions were not significant predictors of internalizing symptoms over time (bs = -.28 to .15, ps [ .21). For first order effects for change in internalizing symptoms over 1 year, please see Table 2. Interactions between the four parenting indices and friendship quality were then added to the internalizing model one at a time. Friendship quality was found to moderate the relation between positive parenting and internalizing symptoms over time (b = .21, p = .02), such that at high levels of friendship quality positive parenting
Fig. 1 Relation between positive parenting and adolescent internalizing symptoms at high and low levels of friendship quality
1 year later. Parental monitoring was positively related, and inconsistent discipline was moderately related to externalizing symptoms at baseline, while parental involvement was negatively related to externalizing symptoms as baseline. Parental monitoring and inconsistent discipline were positively related to externalizing symptoms 1 year later, while parental involvement was moderately negatively associated with externalizing symptoms 1 year later. With the exception of positive parenting and inconsistent discipline and inconsistent discipline and parental involvement, parenting dimensions were correlated suggesting related but distinct dimensions of parenting behavior. Regression Analyses
Table 2 Regression analyses with parenting dimensions, friendship quality, and baseline internalizing and externalizing symptoms predicting change in internalizing and externalizing symptoms Internalizing symptoms (R2 = .48) b
Externalizing symptoms (R2 = .69) b
Parental monitoring
-.10
-.00
Positive parenting
-.11
.02
Parental involvement
.15
.08
Inconsistent discipline
.07
Friendship quality Baseline internalizing symptoms Baseline externalizing symptoms
.08
-.23*
-.08
.65*
-.04
-.04
.83*
Age and gender were included as covariates in all models * p B .05
Fig. 2 Relation between parental involvement and adolescent internalizing symptoms at high and low levels of friendship quality
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quality combined with low levels of parental involvement predicted the lowest levels of internalizing symptoms. Friendship quality did not moderate the relation between poor parental monitoring and inconsistent discipline and adolescent internalizing symptoms over time (ps [ .55). Externalizing Symptoms First-order effects of externalizing symptoms indicated the stability of externalizing symptoms over time (b = .81, p \ .00). Age, gender, internalizing behavior, friendship quality, and parenting dimensions were not significant predictors of externalizing symptoms over time (bs = -.22 to .08, ps [ .20). For first order effects for change in externalizing symptoms over 1 year, please see Table 2. Interactions between the four parenting indices and friendship quality were then added to the externalizing model one at a time. Contrary to expectations, friendship quality did not moderate the relation between positive parenting, poor parental monitoring, inconsistent discipline, or parental involvement and externalizing symptoms over time (ps [ .42).
Discussion The primary purpose of our study was to longitudinally investigate the effects of parenting and friendship quality on internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and the moderating effect of friendship quality on the relation between parenting behavior and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Friendship quality predicted decreases in internalizing symptoms over time and moderated the relation between positive parenting and internalizing symptoms. Externalizing symptoms were highly stable over time and no interaction effects were found. These findings and their implications are further discussed below. Friendship quality was the only significant first order predictor of change in internalizing symptoms, such that high levels of friendship quality were associated with decreased internalizing symptoms over 1 year. This finding is consistent with previous literature which suggests friendship quality is associated with positive adjustment in childhood and adolescence (Fordham and Stevenson-Hinde 1999; Nangle et al. 2003; Thomas and Daubman 2001). This is not to suggest that parents are not important socializing influences, however, it may be as children transition to early adolescence, peer relationships become increasingly important predictors of social adjustment outcomes (Furman and Buhrmester 1992; Gauze et al. 1996; Hartup 1995, 1996; Newcomb and Bagwell 1998). Additionally, friendship quality buffered the longitudinal relation between positive parenting and internalizing
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symptoms. When friendship quality was high, positive parenting was unrelated to change in internalizing symptoms. However, when friendship quality was low, low levels of positive parenting were associated with increases in internalizing symptoms. This is consistent with existing research which suggests parenting practices which undermine the development of autonomy and emotional coping skills (e.g., low levels of positive parenting) are associated with the development of internalizing symptoms (Rubin and Mills 1991). Our findings are likewise consistent with Furman and Buhrmester’s social provisional theory. When children are experiencing low levels of positive parenting, they may turn to their friendship relationships for support. If their friendships are high in quality, the likelihood of experiencing internalizing symptoms may be decreased. Conversely, if their friendships are low in quality, the child may not have a source of social support, and therefore, may be more likely to experience internalizing symptoms. There was a trend for friendship quality to moderate the association between high levels of parental involvement and adolescent internalizing symptoms over the period of 1 year. This is interesting because supportive parenting (e.g., parental involvement) is often associated with decreased internalizing symptoms (Rubin and Mills 1991). Frick et al. (1999), however, found that one of the biggest decreases in parental involvement occurred from ages 9 to 12, during the developmental transition from childhood to adolescence. During this period, the importance of peers and a child’s need for parental autonomy increases. It may be that high levels of involvement undermine this sense of autonomy and foster the development of internalizing symptoms, and this likely becomes most evident when children are experiencing high quality friendships. Further research is needed, however, to clarify this association in a larger sample, and should consider the developmental timing of parental involvement. The first order effects model for externalizing behavior indicated the longitudinal stability of externalizing behavior, which corroborates the suggestion that externalizing symptoms are highly stable characteristics (Patterson et al. 1991; Rubin and Mills 1991). Given the high stability of externalizing symptoms in this sample it is not surprising that friendship quality, parenting, and their interactions were not significant predictors of externalizing symptoms. Regardless, this finding is somewhat inconsistent with previous research which suggests an association between poor parental monitoring and inconsistent discipline and externalizing symptoms (Aunola and Nurmi 2005; Bosmans et al. 2006; De Kemp et al. 2006). Therefore, these associations should be examined further in future research. There are several limitations of our study that should be noted. First, our sample included an oversampling of children with behavior problems. Although oversampling
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for problem behavior is useful because it increases representation of behavior problems in the sample, this sampling approach may limit generalizability to normative samples. Moreover, our sample size had adequate power to detect medium to large, but not small interaction effects. Although we probed interactions that were marginally significant, larger samples may yield additional moderational effects that were not detected in our study. Future research should examine these relations in a larger sample and include a broader age range in order to account for potential developmental changes in these constructs. Additionally, the inclusion of a measure specifically designed to address the construct of over-involvement may aid in the clarification of these associations as well. Furthermore, future research would benefit from including both caregiver and child reports of internalizing symptoms, as previous research has noted some discrepancy in caregiver and child reported psychopathology, particularly in relation to internalizing symptoms (De Los Reyes and Kazdin 2005). Moreover, parents may diminish their child’s behavior problems in order to enhance the social desirability of responding (De Los Reyes and Kazdin 2005), and therefore the inclusion of teacher reports of child behavior may further inform the nature of these associations. Likewise, various aspects of the friendship relationship may impact the socializing influence of peers. For example, increased peer contact and the stability of the friendship may impact the degree of socializing influence. Additionally, it may be important to consider certain aspects of the peer, such as peer delinquency or the peer’s own internalizing and externalizing symptoms, when examining the socializing influence of these peers on the development of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Despite these limitations, our study suggests the importance of considering friendship quality and parenting practices in the development of internalizing symptoms during the developmental transition from childhood to adolescence. Friends, in addition to parents, may be important points of intervention for children who are suffering from internalizing symptoms, particularly when parenting practices are poor. The increased developmental salience of peers requires that children develop the social competencies necessary to engage in high quality friendship relationships (Buhrmester 1998). For example, children must learn to appropriately disclose information while simultaneously engaging in empathetic listening and responding. Social skills training in childhood designed to facilitate the development of such social competencies may reduce the likelihood of experiencing problem behavior in adolescence. Implications for targeted parenting interventions are also noted for the types of parenting practices that may be associated with internalizing symptoms, specifically
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poor positive parenting or parenting that is overly involved relative to the child’s developmental needs. Acknowledgments This paper was presented at the Society for Research in Adolescence biennial meeting held March 6–9, 2008 in Chicago, IL. This research was supported by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA14386) awarded to the third author and a SUNY Graduate Student Employee Union Professional Development Award to the second author. We would like to thank members of the research team for their help with data collection. Finally, we would like to thank the families who participated in our study.
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