The Psychological Record, 1994, 44, 307-350
PAUL HARKAI SCHILLER DONALD A. DEWSBURY University of Florida
This unusual 4-part article considers Paul Schiller's life and works. It includes (1) an introduction, (2) Karl Lashley's (1949) biographical sketch, (3) a supplement to that biography, and (4) a systematic study of Schiller's comparative psychology and its impact. Distinctive typography sets the Lashley work apart from that of Dewsbury.
PAUL HARKAI SCHILLER: AN INTRODUCTION DONALD A. DEWSBURY Paul Harkai Schiller was among the most creative and vigorous psychologists of his time. Although he was killed in a skiing accident in 1949 at a relatively young age, his work continues to be relevant in several research areas. The published record, especially in English, consists of an array of disjointed fragments. In fact, however, Schiller's work fits into a coherent and consistent package. The present fourarticle treatment is intended to remedy the lack of information about Schiller and to provide a broader perspective on his life and work. Aside from a short paragraph in Science (Staff, 1949), when Schiller died there were none of the published tributes and obituaries of the sort written upon the deaths of other prominent psychologists. Perhaps this was because he was Hungarian born and had lived in the United States only a short time before his death. Given the respect displayed for Schiller by his peers, this lacuna is surprising. Frank Beach (1958, p. 177) wrote that Schiller's death "robbed comparative psychology of one of its most imaginative thinkers and ingenious experimenters." Karl Lashley (1957, p. x) called Schiller "distinguished" and ranked him "among the three or four most competent students of comparative psychology in America" (Lashley, 1949). Reprint requests may be sent to Donald A. Dewsbury, Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2065. Telephone: 904-392-0596 (message: 392-0601); electronic mail:
[email protected]
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Leonard Carmichael (1968, p. 60) wrote that Schiller "made especially important contributions to what might be called quantitative psychobiology because he combined the modern ethological point of view with a clear understanding of the quantitative American approach to animal psychology." Although I have been aware of Schiller's work for some time (e.g., Dewsbury, 1984), I first learned a substantial amount about his life from an obituary written by the late Karl Lashley soon after Schiller's death. I found this in the archives of the Yerkes Primate Regional Research Center in Atlanta, GA. Another original copy is now in the archives at the University of Florida. Lashley prepared the sketch after Claire Schiller wrote a 7-page version in 1950. It has never been published in English; several editors, including Edwin G. Boring, Karl M. Dallenbach, and Carroll C. Pratt, rejected Lashley's article. The piece has recently been published in Hungarian (Lashley, 1992). Lashley's biography of Schiller is included as the second part of this treatment. Through a student at the University of Florida I learned of Schiller's daughter, Christina Schlusemeyer of Ocala, Florida. Christina Schlusemeyer had become Karl Lashley's step-daughter as Lashley married the widowed Claire Schiller. Mrs. Schlusemeyer had much material from Schiller and Lashley and shared it with me during several visits. In '1992 she deposited the materials in the archives of the Smathers Library of the University of Florida. From that material, and other items that I have located, I have written a short piece updating Lashley's biography of Paul Schiller and filling in a few gaps. This is the third part of the treatment. The fourth part is a more systematic study of the comparative psychology of Paul Schiller and the impact that it has had on psychology. Because Schiller published no systematic review of his work in English, it is the first integrated treatment of his work that is available. Some themes discussed by Lashley are further developed and expanded upon and new themes are introduced. A discussion of Schiller's theory and research leads to a consideration of some issues that have loomed important in the recent literature. There are some indications of renewed interest in Schiller's work. Marton (1991) published an analysis of Schiller's work with an emphasis on the relationship to his teacher, Paul Ranschburg. Joseph Perczel arranged for the Hungarian publication of the Lashley sketch of Schiller. I hope that this treatment will help preserve the oeuvre of Paul Schiller and lead to increased recognition of his contributions, especially by English-speaking readers.
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References BEACH, F. A. (1958). Ethology's pioneers. Contemporary Psychology, 3, 177179. CARMICHAEL, L. (1968). Some historical roots of present-day animal psychology. In B. B. Wolman (Ed.), Historical roots of contemporary psychology (pp. 47-76). New York: Harper & Row. DEWSBURY, D. A. (1984). Comparative psychology in the twentieth century. Stroudsburg, PA: Hutchinson Ross. LASHLEY, K. S. (1957). Introduction. In C. H. Schiller (Ed.), Instinctive behavior: The development of a modern concept (pp. ix-xii). New York: International Universities Press. LASHLEY, K. S. (1949, February 24). [Letter to John M. Bunker]. Paul Schiller papers, University Archives, Smathers Library, University of Florida. LASHLEY, K. S. (1992). Harkai Schiller Pal: 1908-1949. Vegeken, 92(2), 35-40. (In Hungarian). MARTON, M. (1991). Harkai Schiller Pal Cselekveslelektana-ahogyan Ranschburg Pal Latta [The action-psychology of Paul H. Schiller as Paul Ranschburg saw it.] Pszich610gia, 11, 147-155. STAFF (1949, June 10). Paul Harkai Schiller. Science, 109,601.
Paul Harkai Schiller: 1908-19491 ,2 Karl S. Lashley
Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology Orange Park, Florida
Paul Harkai Schiller was born on November 4, 1908, in Budapest. His family was of Swiss and German origin but had held the title of Imperial Chancellor in Hungary from the late eighteenth century. His father was a practicing surgeon, his mother an amateur pianist with many cultural interests. His early ambition was for a musical career; he studied violin and later piano, completing two years at the Conservatory. A strained wrist forced him to give up the piano but he retained an intense interest in music, especially in modem Hungarian composition. In vacations from Gymnasium and University he traveled extensively, often on foot and with little money, ranging from Turkey and Italy to the Scandinavian countries and through 1The Hungarian form of the name is Harkai Schiller Pal; in German publications it sometimes appears as P. von Schiller. 21n preparing this article for publication I have converted it from its original style to 1990s APA style and made minor changes in the process. I have tried to minimize the changes made from Lashley's text. - D. A. Dewsbury
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EasteITl Europe to Lapland. The intimate contacts with different peoples and customs were probably an important factor in his later interest in psychology. The family tradition was toward an academic career and when Schiller entered Petrus Pazmany University in Budapest in 1926 he had already an inclination toward science and a dominant desire to understand human action. At the university he was chiefly influenced by the philosopher, A. Pauler and by P. Ranschburg. In 1928 Schiller was appointed assistant to Ranschburg. The department of psychology at the University had been abolished after the revolution of 1919. Ranschburg held the title of Professor of Clinical Neurology but his interest was rather in psychological than in clinical problems. For some years he had been recording errors and contaminations in speech and writing and had based his theory of "homogeneous inhibition" largely upon these studies. Schiller carried out his first research under Ranschburg's direction. This was a study of errors in type-setting and resulted in a detailed analysis of the kinds of errors, interpretation of their causes, and recommendations for improving accuracy. At this time Ranschburg was preparing his critical reviews of objective and behavioristic psychology (Ranschburg, 1932a, 1932b) and there must have been many discussions of motor theories as well as of Ranschburg's conceptions of the interaction of similar neural patteITls. The influence of these opposed points of view is evident both in Schiller's acceptance of gestalt psychology and in the interest in motor phenomena which came to dominate much of his later research. His thesis, entitled "A System of Psychological Categories," was presented in 1930. This was an historical review of systems of psychology, with an attempt at more accurate defmition and interrelation of classical conceptions and terminology. It gives little indication of the keen interest in the experimental method and the empirical attitude which are characteristic of his later work, but it laid the foundation for the profound historical insight evident in his "Aufgabe der Psychologie." Mter receiving the doctorate in 1930, Schiller obtained a fellowship for foreign study and the two following years were spent at the University of Berlin, where he worked with Wolfgang Kohler. He also had influential contacts with Heinz WeITler, then at Hamburg. Publications from this period were chiefly conceITled with intersensory effects in perception. He found evidence that the rate of flicker-fusion is modified by harsh sounds but is unaffected by musical tones. This discovery led to a more general study of "roughness" in visual, tactile, and auditory modalities (Schiller, 1932). He also studied factors determining the direction of stroboscopiC movement demonstrating the principle
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of "assinlilation"; that the direction of movement is determined by an integration of the initial and final positions or forms of the picture (Schiller, 1933a). He extended these studies of perception to animals in a series of ingenious experiments in which he obtained evidence of intersensory transfer and of the phi phenomenon in minnows (Schiller, 1933b, 1934). On his return to Budapest in 1932 he was appointed Lecturer in psychology and successively Associate (1935-37) and Professor (1937-47). Except in psychiatry and education, at the time there was little professional psychological activity in Hungary. The need for development and practical application of the subject was great and, although Schiller's major interest was not in applied SCience, he devoted hinlself from 1933 to 1940 with his usual enthusiasm to the tasks of creating an interest in psychology and of developing psychotechnology. He helped to set up institutes for aptitude testing in the Hungarian army and air forces, for the state railroads, and for various factories. He established an Institute for Research on Public Opinion at the Radio Center in Budapest. He founded and edited the "Psychological Studies of the University of Budapest," syllabi for the Military Aptitude Testing Institute, and reports of the Public Opinion Research Institute. He published on the validation of tests of intelligence and aptitude, on the smoking and drinking habits of Hungarians, on military psychology, and a small book on Psychology and Personality Research. In spite of the demands of applied psychology, his basic theoretical concepts were taking shape at this time and his interest in the analysis of action found expression in studies of "purposeless movements" and of the motor learning of mono- and dizygotic twins (Schiller & Molnar, 1939; Schiller & Steil, 1939). In the former he gave children lumps of modeling clay and instructed them to shape some meaningless object. In various ways he established different moods or emotional attitudes and found characteristic shaping of the clay for each mood. The twins were tested in maze performance. Monozygotic pairs were more alike in their scores than dizygotic, and these more alike than unrelated pairs. During this period Schiller fIrst developed his "action theory" of behavior, outlined in 1937 and elaborated at book length in 1940, under the title, "The Task of Psychology" (Schiller, 1940a). The German occupation of Hungary in 1944 terminated has active research for a period. He retained his position at the University and as advisor to the Military Testing Institute, largely because of the opportunity that it gave him to aid friends subject to Nazi persecution. Ranschburg was forced into hiding and Schiller helped hinl and many other friends and students at considerable personal risk. He lived through the Siege of Budapest and at fust
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welcomed the Russian invasion as a liberation from the Nazi regime. In 1945 he accepted the professorship of psychology at Bolyai University, in the Hungarian-speaking section of Romania, in addition to his appointment at Budapest. He was, however, quicldy disillusioned as to the possibility of free research under the Russians and seized the opportunity in 1947 to visit America as research associate at Columbia University. Later in 1947 he accepted an appointment at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology and, soon thereafter, applied for American citizenship. At Columbia he completed a study of the re-structuring of dissected figures, characteristically employing a motor response as indicator, in accord with his conception of the role of action in perception (Bakay & Schiller, 1948). At the Yerkes Laboratories Schiller plarmed a comprehensive program of research. This included a systematic and comparative analysis of the motor elements in the behavior of animals at different levels in the evolutionary scale; studies of the influence of body-structure on behavior, of the innate action-patterns of different animals, and of the relative importance of age or maturation and of experience in the development of manipulative skills. He also undertook a comparative study of "insightful" behavior, involving both a formal analysis of the concept and experimental studies of the solving of comparable problems by a wide range of animal types. To a considerable extent these two projects overlapped, since Schiller believed that the inherited organization of motor patterns plays a primary role in insightful behavior. In the period from September 1947 to May 1949 he completed a large number of experimental studies. Detour experiments with the octopus, with minnows, and with rats (Schiller, 1949a, 1949b) revealed a persistence of motor patterns and of motivated activity, but gave little evidence of maintained orientation in the absence of continuously directive cues. With monkeys and chimpanzees he studied the manipulative behavior elicited at the first experience by various objects, when the situation involves no external incentive or goal. He found, for example, that the adolescent or adult chimpanzee plays at first opportunity and for protracted periods with a stick or box, exhibiting every variety of motor activity that might later be employed in adaptive or insightful behavior. Each object elicits from the animal those elements in his motor repertoire which best "fit" the object; the handling of ropes, sticks, weights, etc., differs and is immediately appropriate to the properties of the object. Younger chimpanzees and monkeys exhibit a more limited range of manipulative activities and fail to perform the more complex manipulations, even after a large amount of experience with the objects. The introduction of an external goal, such as
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food to be obtained, inhibits many of the spontaneous actions, even those which would be immediately effective in reaching the goal. The first solution of a goal-reaching problem is usually accidental; the insight consists in the recognition of the significance of the manipulations which have attained the goal and their immediate generalization to other tasks (Schiller, 1952). In addition to these studies he carried out experiments on the relative ease of formation of habits which are "sensible" or are incongruous with the visual properties of a situation (Schiller, 1950), studied the "drawings" made by a chimpanzee (Schiller, 1951), and saw through the press the German edition of his Aufgabe der Psychologie (Schiller, 1948). With his devotion to science, Schiller combined a love of adventure and joy in meeting and overcoming physical emergencies. Perhaps he rationalized this in saying that a student of psychology must have every possible human experience, if his statements are to have validity. He was an expert swimmer and sailor of small boats, an experienced mountaineer. In connection with his work with the Hungarian Air Force he learned to fly and he obtained an amateur pilot's license shortly after coming to America. He flew at every opportunity, even renting a small plane to commute from the Laboratories to Marineland for his studies of the octopus. On the first of May, 1949, on a skiing trip, he climbed alone to the upper slope of Mount Washington. An earlier thaw had iced a portion of the trail and in his rapid descent he slipped to his death over the precipitous West Wall. So ended prematurely a scientific career of great promise. In the brief span of 19 years Schiller published some seventy titles, including four books. He did much to establish psychology as an independent science in Hungary. He directed more than twenty doctoral theses at the Universities of Budapest and Cluj. He edited and contributed to a Handbook of Psychology (Budapest, 1942). He established and edited the Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, in which he and his students published more than one hundred papers between 1937 and 1947. He served as Member of the Council and as President of the Applied Section of the Hungarian Psychological AsSOciation, and was a member of the Deutsche Gesellschaft fUr Psychologie, of the American Psychological ASSOciation, and of the Eastern Psychological Association. Despite the constant pressure of work, he found time for varied cultural activities, for play, and for many friendships and extensive correspondence. In addition to his native Hungarian he wrote and spoke fluently German, Italian, French and English, mostly acquired during his youthful travels. His knowledge of
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music and literature was extensive and his discussions of them stimulating. His curiosity ranged over the whole field of knowledge. I remember my first call at his home when I found the living room littered with jars of live amphibia and reptiles and even a specimen of the stinkhOTIl, Phallus impudicus; strange New World forms of which he was anxious to leaTIl the names and life histories. His humor was joyous with never a trace of malice; characteristically he founded an "Institut fUr Unfug" (mischieO at the biological station at Tihany. He was as ready for a lark as for a serious discussion. It has been said that the one word that would best characterize him is enthusiasm. He found the world an exciting place and somehow communicated its thrills to his friends. To know him was a vivid adventure. His home life seemed to me exceptionally happy. His wife, Claire Schiller, herself trained in psychology and English literature, shared his wide interests, had a sympathetic understanding of his scientific ideals, and in many ways helped him in his work and in the preparation of his manuscripts. Some of his experiments were done at home. These he shared with his children, Peter and Christina, and the three made of them an animated game. Schiller's theoretical writings were voluminous and it is impossible to summarize in a limited space the many fields which he covered. His systematic position can be characterized, though inadequately, as an application of holistic principles to action. 3 He was not satisfied with the subjectivism of gestalt psychology or with the atomism of reflexology, but sought to synthesize the two points of view in a system which would emphasize reactions and at the same time give due regard to the importance of the total structure of behavior. The result was his "action psychology." He wrote, "Behavior can be defmed as an organization of vital activities whose elements vary but whose effects on the individual's situation are constant. It is a matter of indifference what muscles are contracted or what words are used. What is decisive is their effect on the environment and the consequent possibilities of further manipulation. Such "actiongestalt" has no constant correlate in movement or in consciousness. This specific phenomenon is the theme of a unique SCience; the science of behavior in the psychological Situation, the science of action. " Two themes stand out in his theoretical writing and guided his research; the continuous interplay of environment and behavior, of situation and action, and the central importance of 3The most complete statement is in Schiller (1944). Unfortunately the plates and first run of this book were destroyed by fire before release and only a few advance copies exit. The book was first published in Hungarian under the title, "Foundations of Psychology; the Analysis of Action," Budapest, 1944.
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motivation as the subject of psychological study. He considered that psychology is distinguished from physiology, not because it deals with the total organism, but because it always considers the organism in relation to the situation (Schiller, 1940b). Manipulation changes the environment and this in turn produces the demand for new manipulation. Every action is the product of this historical development, as the speed of a falling body is a function of its past acceleration, and action can be understood only in terms of its history. Psychology is thus concerned with creative or emergent functions. The organism has a repertoire of innate manipulative patterns for the element of every situation. A knowledge of these patterns is the only safe starting point for psychological investigations; hence his descriptive studies of the motor and manipulative actions of animals confronted with new situations. There is an action-pattern appropriate to almost every Situation, which is elicited immediately (Schiller, 1947). These action-patterns form the basis of psychological development. As they change the Situation, they alter its perceptual character. The range and complexity of perceptual capacity increases as the elemental actions are combined into more complex manipulations. The combination and condensation of action-patterns is the basis of learning, providing both the material and the motivation for the higher forms oflearning. Psychological laws cannot be inferred from overt acts but only from their motivation. Overtly identical acts can have entirely different sources and meanings, according to the intentions which they express. An understanding of motivation is therefore fundamental to all psychological inquiry. An important source of motivation is the interdigitation of action and situation. The object demands that something be done with it and the doing creates new demands. "Every action leads to new incentives and these in turn produce new actions." There are primitive biological needs but the activities which satisfy these needs create new needs and thus the complex pattern of motivation is developed. Behavior, motives, and experience cannot be dealt with separately. They are mutually dependent and their interplay constitutes action, which is the all-inclusive category. Conscious experience does not exist apart from action and derives its meaning as an orienting factor in the total structure of the act. Behavior is overt action which cannot be interpreted save in terms of motivation and motivation is in turn dependent upon the relation of behavior and situation. The whole constitutes a field of forces which is the basis of action. "The task of psychological investigation is to differentiate, to compare, and to systematize the action-motives." Schiller's early training was in the traditional philosophic
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approach to psychology, evident in much of his theoretical writing. Although he had largely broken away from this tradition and developed an experimental attitude, the lack of formal system in American psychology impressed him as a disorganized tumult and he found much in it to criticize. Nevertheless, in his brief residence here, he was feeling the pressure of the new atmosphere. His own experimental results were making him a bit distrustful of holistic principles. His scientific contacts were inducing a more sympathetic attitude toward the empirical approach and toward the simpler conceptions of association. What the final outcome for his system might have been, none can say, but it surely would have been insightful and stimulating. Psychology is the poorer by the loss of a brilliant and reflective mind. Author's Note (Lashley) I am indebted to Dr. Claire H. Schiller for biographical data and for translations or abstracts of many of the Hungarian papers.
References Bakay, E., and Schiller, P. H. (1948). Manipulative correction of visually presented figures. American Journal of Psychology, 61,487-501. Ranschburg, P. (1932a). Behaviorismus und Psychologie. Zur Kritik der apsychologischen Psychologien, Archiv for die Gesamte Psychologie, 86, 307-406. Ranschburg, P. (1932b). Reflexologie und Psychologie, Kwartalnik Psychologiczny, 3, 1-72. Schiller, P. H. (1932). Die Rauhigkeit als intermodale Erscheinung. Zeitschrift for Psychologie, 127, 265-289. Schiller, P. H. (1933a). Stroboskopische Alternativversuche. Psycholische Forschung, 17, 179-214. Schiller, P. H. (1933b). Intersensorielle Transposition bei Fischen. Zeitschrift for vergleichende Physiologie, 19,304-309. Schiller, P. H. (1934). Kinematoskopisches Sehen der Fische. Zeitschrift for vergleichende Physiologie, 20, 1934, 454-462. Schiller, P. H. (1940a). The task of psychology. Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Science. Schiller, P. H. (l940b). Psychology and physiology. Journal of General Psychology, 23, 329-341. Schiller, P. H. (1944). Handeln und Erleben. Berlin: Junker und Dunnhaupt. Schiller, P. H. (1947). A psychophysical theory of instinct behavior, Acta Bolyai, University of Cluj, 1, 1947, 1-27. Schiller, P. H. (1948). Aufgabe der Psychologie. Vienna: Springer. Schiller, P. H. (1949a). Delayed detour response in the octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 42, 220-225. Schiller, P. H. (1949b). Analysis of detour behavior I. Learning of roundabout pathways in fish. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 42, 463-475.
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Schiller, P. H. (1950). Analysis of detour behavior: Iv. Congruent and incongruent detour behavior in cats. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 217-227. Schiller, P. H. (1951). Figural preferences in the drawings of a chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1J1J, 101-111. Schiller, P. H. (1952). Innate constituents of complex responses in primates. Psychological Review, 59, 177-191. Schiller, P. H., and Molnar, I. (1939). Motor learning in twins. Psychological Studies from the Univiversity of Budapest, 3, 67-78. [author order uncertain] Schiller, P. H., and Steif, A. (1939). ExpreSSive features in purposeless manipulation. Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, 3, 1-17. [author order uncertain]
Selected Bibliography Schiller, P. H. (1930). Psychological analysis of printing errors. Magyar Psychologiai Szemle, 34,1-68.* Schiller, P. H. (1930). A System of Psychological Categories. Budapest: Sarkany-Nyomda Reszvenytarsasag. (Dissertation)* Schiller, P. H. (1931). Die Stellung der synasthetische Erscheinungen in der See1enstruktur. Bericht ilber den III Kongress for Farbe-TonForschung, Hamburg, 318-335. Schiller, P. H. (1932). Das Ranschburgsche Phanomen und dessen Einfluss auf das Erkennen von Kraftfahrzeugkennzeichen. Psychotechnische Zeitschrift, 7, 48-58. Schiller, P. H. (1932). Untersuchungen iiber Empfindung und Empfinden. 4. Das optische Verschmelzen in seiner Abhangigkeit von heteromodaler Reizung. Zeitschrift for Psychologie, 127, 249-288. Schiller, P. (1932). Untersuchungen uber Empfmdung und Empfmden. Die Rauhigkeit als intermodale Erscheinung. Zeitschrift filr Psychologie, 127, 265-289. Schiller, P., and Wolff, W. (1933). Gegenseitige Beeinflussung der optischen und der akustischen Helligkeit. Zeitschrift filr Psychologie, 129, 135-148. [author order uncertain] Schiller, P. (1933). Intersensorielle Transposition bei Fischen. Zeitschrift for Vergleichende Physiologie, 19,304-309. Schiller, P. (1933). Stroboskopische Alternativversuche. Psychologische Forschung, 17, 179-214. Schiller, P. (1933). Durch Beschattung aufleuchtender Figuren, Zeitschrift for Psychologie, 129, 149-157. Schiller, P. (1934). Wirkung des Umfe1des auf motorische Leistungen. Zeitschrift for Psychologie, 132,84-103. Schiller, P. (1934). Leistung und Sinnesumfeld. Industrielle p;sychotechnik, 11,181-184. Schiller, P. (1934). Kinematoskopisches Sehen der Fische. Zeitschrift for Vergleichende Physiologie, 20, 454-462. Schiller, P. (1934). Perception of movement of the minnow (Phoxinus laevis). Arbeit. d. I Abt. d. Ungarischen Bioi. Forschungsinst., 7,8694. [full title unavailable] *
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Schiller, P. (1934). Psychological diagnosis of children. A Java Utjain, 9, 3-6.* Schiller, P. (1935). Eine Erhebung iiber Nervositiit. Zur Phiinomenologie der Handlungsantriebe. Zeitschrij't fUr angewandte Psychologie und Charakterkunde, 49, 233-252. Schiller, P. (1935). Die triebpsychologischen Wurzeln der sogenannten Nervosen Zustiinde. Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Psychologie, 2, 484-498. Schiller, P. (1935). Interrelation of different senses in perception. British Journal of Psychology, 1935,25,465-469. Schiller, P. (1935). Psychology and Personality Research. Budapest: Pantheon. * Schiller, P., and Varga, I. (1935). Wine-drinking habits in Budapest. Budapest: Hungarian Economic Research Institute. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P. (1936). Squardo sullo sviluppo della psicologia in Ungheria. Archivo Italia'1o di Psicologia, 13, 251-255. Schiller, P. (1936). Uber die Aufgaben der Psychologie. Gedenkschr. f. A. v. Pauler, Berlin, 178-186. [full title unavailable] Schiller, P. A theory of perception. Athenaeum, 25, xx-xx. [page numbers missmg] * Schiller, P. (1937). Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber Bewegungssehen. Biological Reviews, 12, 116-153. Schiller, P. (1937). The task of psychology. Athenaeum, 23, 256-274. * Schiller, P., and Molnar, I. (1937). Nervousness as a drive to act. Lelektani Tanulmanyok, 1,30-37. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P., and Molnar, I. (1937). The influence of constant stimuli on work. Lelektani Tanulmanyok, 1937, 1, 30-37. [author order uncertain; repeats pagination of above reference]* Schiller, P. (1937). Correlation of intelligence tests and matriculation examinations. Magyar Psychologiai Szemle, 8, xx-xx. [pagination not given] * Schiller, P. (1938). A configurational theory of puzzles and jokes. Journal of General Psychology, 18,217-234. Schiller, P., and Varga, I. (1938). Smoking habits in Budapest. Budapest: Hungarian Economic Research Institute. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P. (1939). Principles of the doctrine of action. Athenaeum, 25, 129.* Schiller, P., and Molnar, I. (1939). Motor leanting in twins. Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, 3, 67-78. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P., and Komjathy, Z. (1939). Standardization and calibration of an intelligence test. Magyar Psychologiai Szemle, 10, 141-157. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P., and Steif, A. (1939). Expressive features in purposeless manipulation, Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, 3, 1-17. [author order uncertain] * Schiller, P. (1940). The Task of Psychology. Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Science. * Schiller, P. (1940). Aptitude testing and actual achievement in the workshop. Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, 4, xxx-xxx. [no pagination given] *
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Hartmann, G. W., and Schiller, P. (1940). Contemporary Hungarian psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 37, 621-628. Schiller, P. (1940). Psychology and physiology. Journal of General Psychology, 23, 329-341. Schiller, P. (1941). Character and personality research in military service. Magyar Psychologiai Szemle, 14, xx-xx. [no pagination] * Schiller, P. (1942). The intelligence of fish. Contributions from the Biological Institute ofTihany, 16, xxx-xxx. [no pagination given]* Schiller, P. (1942). History of psychology. In P. Schiller (Ed.) Handbook of Psychology (pp. xxx-xxx). Budapest: Psychological Laboratory of the University of Budapest. * Schiller, P. (1942-3). Umwegversuche an Elritzen. Zeitschrift filr Tierpsycholologie, 5, 101-130. Schiller, P. (1944). Foundation of Psychology: The Analysis of Action. Budapest: Pantheon. * Schiller, P. (1944). Handeln und Erleben. Berlin: Junker & DUnnhaupt. Schiller, P. (1946). Instinct and intelligence in animal behavior. Termeszettudomany, 73, 1-9. Schiller, P. (1947). Results of Hungarian Public Opinion Research (16pp.). Budapest: Hungarian Public Opinion Research Institute. Bakay, E., and Schiller, P. (1947). Detour experiments with rats. Psychological Studies from the University of Budapest, 9, 25-30. Schiller, P. (1947). A psychophysical theory of instinct behavior. Acta Bolyai University, Cluj, 1, 1-27. Schiller, P. (1947). Paul Ranschburg: 1870-1945. American Journal of Psychology, 60, 444-446. Schiller, P. (1947). A Hungarian survey on sympathetic attitudes. International Journal of Opinion and Attitude Research, 1(3),85-92. Bakay, E., and Schiller, P. (1948). Manipulative correction of visually presented figures. American Journal of Psychology, 61,487-501. Schiller, P. (1948). Delayed response in the minnow. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41, 233-238. Schiller, P. (1948). Aufgabe de Psychologie. Eine Geschichte ihrer Probleme. Vienna. Schiller, P. (1949). A psychological interpretation of instinct action. Archivio di Psicologia Neurologia e Psichiatria, 10, 1-18. Schiller, P. (1949). Delayed detour responses in the octopus. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 42, 220-225. Schiller, P. (1949). Analysis of detour behavior. I. Learning of roundabout pathways in fish. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 42, 463-475. Schiller, P. (1950). AnalYSis of detour behavior. Iv. Congruent and incongruent detour behavior in cats. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 217-227. Schiller, P. (1951). Figural preferences in the drawings of a chimpanzee. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 44,101-111. Schiller, P., and Hartmann, G. W. (1951). Manipulative completion of bisected geometrical figures. American Journal of Pychology, 64, 238-246. Schiller, P. (1952). Innate constituents of complex responses in primates. Psychological Review, 1952, 177-191. * in Hungarian.