Phytoparasitica DOI 10.1007/s12600-016-0524-3
Plant-derived products in crop protection: effects of various application methods on pests and diseases R. T. Gahukar
Received: 6 December 2015 / Accepted: 8 July 2016 # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract The application methods used for the plant-derived products in agricultural crops include seed treatment, mulching of fresh plant material, drenching, trunk injection, soil application of oil cakes and foliar application of extracts. The products derived from neem (Azadirachta indica) have been extensively studied due to their multiple modes of action in insects (antifeedant, deterrent, growth regulator, toxic), plant pathogens (inhibition of spore germination and growth) and nematodes (restriction to root penetration and gall formation). In this review, application methods used singly or integrated with other methods are discussed while considering their practicality and impact on bioefficacy of the plant-derived products against insects, mites, nematodes and plant pathogens in developing and less-developed countries. Also, the standardization of application methods and equipment is emphasized.
Keywords Soil/Plant application . Seed treatment . Pest/ Disease incidence . Plant-derived products . Bioefficacy . Economics R. T. Gahukar (*) Arag Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Plot 220 Reshimbag, Nagpur 440009 Maharashtra, India e-mail:
[email protected]
Introduction In earlier days, traditional plant-derived products (such as water extracts, seed cake, crude oil) applied with the conventional methods gave partial control of pests and diseases of agricultural crops. In recent years, there had been improvement in the application methods and product formulations with better performance in crop protection (Regnault-Roger and Philogene 2008; Dayan et al. 2009; Riyajan and Sakdapipanich 2009; Gerwick and Sparks 2014). Among plant-derived products, those based on neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) have been extensively used, viz. neem leaf extract (NLE), neem cake (NC), neem seed kernel powder (NSKP), neem seed kernel extract (NSKE), neem oil (NO) and azadirachtin (AZ) (Gahukar 2014). New formulations such as neem cake in flakes, kernel-based pellets, macro- and micro-encapsulated suspensions, and nano gels with controlled release of phytochemicals have been introduced into the market (Bhattacharya et al. 2009). Apart from neem, the products of custard apple (Annona squamosa L.), pyrethrum (Pyrethrum spp.) and Chinese chaste tree (Vitex negundo L.) are being sold in developing and less developed countries (Gahukar 2014). Generally, the guidelines for applying these products and other crop protection measures are available to farmers from the agriculture and/or extension departments (Gahukar 1990, 2014). The objective of this review is therefore to discuss with examples, the current application methods to facilitate recommendations of those
Phytoparasitica
proved effective against pests and diseases without compromising crop productivity.
Application methods Major application methods used in controlling the pests and diseases of agricultural crops are summarized in Table 1.
Seed treatment Suthar et al. (1999) treated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) seeds with NO (10 %) and neem-based commercial products at 25 ml/kg seed, and reported complete prevention from damage of the white grub, Holotrichia consanguinea (Blanch.) by repelling larvae that destroy roots by feeding. In two field trials on blond psyllium (Plantago ovata Forsk.), seed treatment with 1 % powder of dried leaves of neem, crown flower (Calotropis gigantea Ait.) and thorn apple (Datura stramonium L.) mixed in a proportion of 1:1:1 resulted in a significant reduction in aphid [Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch)] numbers (2.4–6.9 aphids/plant versus 15.6 aphids/ plant in control in one trial, and 3.7–5.2 aphids/plant versus 9.5 aphids/plant in control in another trial). This treatment also reduced termite infestation level (0.5 % versus 2.2 % in control) on plant roots (Rathore and Sundria 2011). An aqueous extract (10 %) of Viscum album L. leaves applied to seeds reduced the downy mildew [Sclerospora graminicola (Sacc.) J. Schrot] incidence in pearl millet [(Pennisetum glaucum (L.)] by 44–70 % (Bonzi et al. 2012). Plant resistance to disease infection is due to amides and other antimicrobial compounds present in the extract (Chandrashekhara et al. 2010). Soaking chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds for half an hour in 5 % aqueous extract of A. indica or lantana (Lantana camara L.) resulted in 32–37 % incidence of wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri (Padwick) compared to 60 % in control and increased the grain yield by 42–48 % (Kamdi et al. 2012). Tomato [Solanum lycopersicum (L.) Karst] seeds coated with Suneem® (containing 80 % of AZ) or NO (3 %) significantly reduced the numbers of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood. However, NO was phytotoxic to germinating seeds (Akhtar and Mahmood 1997). Among five neembased products (NSKE, water extract of seed coat,
Achook®, Neemark® and Nimbecidine®), all applied to seed at 20 % (w/w), Achook (containing 1500 ppm of AZ) prevented nematode penetration into chickpea roots whereas 5 % NSKE reduced root feeding (Vijayalakshmi and Basu 1999). Seed treatment with 1 % Neemgold® (containing 1500 ppm of AZ) significantly reduced infestation up to 95.5 % of the root galls produced by M. incognita in okra [Ablemoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] with highest yield of 20,000 kg/ha (Kumar and Singh 2011). Infestation of the root-knot nematodes attacking the kidney bean/ French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was controlled completely due to prevention of their entry into roots, when seeds soaked for 24 h in essential oil (100 ppm) of Vitex negundo L. leaves were sown (Joymati et al. 2012). Thus, seed treatment proved effective to either prevent or control insects, soil-borne pathogens and nematodes.
Drenching In Pavela et al. (2004) applied AZ-A to roots of potted rape (Bassica napus L.) plants at a concentration of 0.00005–0.25 mg/mL and observed significantly higher nymphal mortality, and reduction in feeding, adult longevity and fecundity of the cabbage aphid, Brevicornye brassicae L with concentration increase. Neem-based commercial product Ozoneem-Aza® (containing 30 % of AZ) was applied at 10–12 mL/seedling, 15 days after transplanting of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) seedlings (Srinivasan Murthy et al. 1994). This treatment effectively checked the attack of the black headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella Walker (=Nephantis serinopa Meyrick) and no damaged trees were observed. Jagginawar and Krishna Naik (2001) prevented the attack of the shothole borer, Xyleborus perforans Wollastan on pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) by drenching tree up to 60 cm in height, twice at 45 days interval, with NO emulsion (containing 10 mL/L water) at 8 L/tree. Under glasshouse and field conditions, populations of M. incognita juveniles on coleus (Coleus forskohlii Brig.) roots were reduced by 43–60 % resulting in a 15– 35.6 % increase in tuber yield after drenching with an extract (5 %) of Tagetes erecta L., Crotalaria juncea L., Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., Brassica juncea L, Allium cepa L. or Ricinus communis L. (Seenivasan 2011). Another root-knot nematode species, Meloidogyne
nematode
nematode
Vitex negundo
Mulching
Soil incorporation
FU,NE NE
wilt, nematode nematode nematode
Fumara pariflora
NE
FU
FU
wilt
Arachis hypogaea, Pongamia pinnata, Sesamum indicum Argemone mexicana. Calotropis procera, Eichhornia sp.,Solanum xanthocarpum C. procera, T.erectca, Datura stramonium
soft rot
NE
nematode
IN
NE
nematode
shoot borer
NE
nematode
A.indica
FU
wilt
A.indica, Brassica napus Capsicum annuum, Manihot esculentum, Piper nigram, Sygygium aromaticum Annona squamosa, Bauhinia scadens, Tagetes erecta Eucalyptus sp., Melia azedarach, Psidium guajava A.indica
IN
IN
termites
thrips
NE IN
white grub
nematode
shot-hole borer NE
IN IN
black-headed caterpillar nematode
IN
aphid
NE
NE
A.indica, Calotropis procera
A.indica
Allium cepa, Brassica juncea Crotalaria juncea, Ricinis communis, Tagetes erecta, Vigna unguiculata A.indica
A.indica
FU
downy mildew
A. indica
Drenching
IN
A.indica, Calotropis gigantea, Datura stramonium Viscum album
IN
white grub aphids, termites
Azadirachta indica
Mode of action
Seed treatment
Insect, nematode, disease controlled
Plant species used
Method of application
tomato
okra
chickpea
jasmine
ginger
ginger
acid lime
tomato
eggplant, tomato
chrysanthe-mum
sugarcane
tomato
peanut
pigeon pea
coleus
pomegranate
coconut
cabbage,
kidney bean
tomato, okra, chickpea,
pearl millet
blond psyllium
peanut
Crop
Table 1 Examples of plant species used in different application methods to control insects, nematodes and diseases in agricultural crops
Naz et al. 2015
Hussain et al. 2011
Rizvi et al. 2012
Ramamoorthy et al. 2000
Mezhatsu et al. 2008
Lalnuntluanga and Singh 2008
Shanthi and Sivakumar 2011
Jayakumar et al. 2002
Cannayane and Rajendran 2013
Bowers and Locke 2000
Singh et al. 2002; Singh and Singh 2003
Thoeming and Poehling 2006
Suthar et al. 1999
Karthikairaj et al. 2012
Seenivasan 2011
Jagginawar and Krishna Naik 2001
Srinivasan Murthy et al. 1994
Pavela et al. 2004
Joymati et al. 2012
Akhtar and Mahmood 1997; Vijayalakshmi and Basu 1999; Kumar and Singh 2011
Chandrashekhara et al. 2010
Rathore and Sundria 2011
Suthar et al. 1999
Reference
Phytoparasitica
Mukherjee et al. 2014
Satpathy and Rai 2002
Barba and Tablizo 2014
cucurbits
cucurbits
cucurbits
Tano et al. 2011
Sacco et al. 2011
oil palm
palm
Shivashankar et al. 2000
Schulte et al. 2006
coconut,
litchi
Schulte et al. 2006 litchi
Akhtar and Mahmood 1993 tomato
Rao et al. 1998
Dash and Senapati 1995
capsicum pepper
paddy
Reference
javanica (Treub) was controlled completely on pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] potted plants by applying about 1 m deep, a 20 % extract of neem leaf powder in cow urine (Karthikairaj et al. 2012). It is a general practice in India to mix cow urine with plant products meant for drenching because the bio-efficacy of the mixture is enhanced due to the synergistic effect of cow urine (Gahukar 2013). As drenching is a simple technique, farmers can follow it without much technical knowledge and often it is included in routine cultural operations.
Soil application
FU fungicidal, IGR insect growth regulator, IN insecticidal, NE nematicidal, RE repellent
IN fruit flies Cocos nucifera
IN fruit flies Musa paradisiaca, Ocimum sanctum
IN cucumber beetle Momordica cochinchinensis Lures and baits
RE
IN leaf mining beetle
red palm weevil A.indica, Quillaja saporaria
IN,IGR black-headed caterpillar
IN
IN Trunk injection
stink bug
NE nematode
IN
A.indica, Eruca sativa, Raphanus napus, Ricinus sativus A.indica
IN A.indica Seedling root dipping
pod borers
Plant species used
leaf hopper
Incorporation of plant products
Method of application
Table 1 (continued)
Insect, nematode, disease controlled
Mode of action
Crop
Phytoparasitica
Suthar et al. (1999) applied NSKP into soil at 20 kg/ha or Achook® powder at 10 kg/ha into furrows in peanut field and reported 70 % reduction in white grub, H. consanguinea populations. Two neem-based products (Jawan® containing 1500 ppm of AZ, Nimbecidine® containing 300 ppm of AZ), both applied at 5 L/ha or a 2 % water extract of Calotropis procera (Willd.) at 500 L/ha, reduced the level of damage of a termite complex (Microtermes spp., Odontotermes spp., Trinervitermes spp.), by 2.5 times in sugarcane crop (Saccharum officinarum L.) and increased yield by 1.5 times over untreated field (Singh et al. 2002; Singh and Singh 2003). A 10 % aqueous emulsion of NO or clove oil [Sygygium aromaticum (L.) Merr and Perry], water extract of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), cassava (Manihot esculentum Crantz) or capsicum pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), or essential oil of mustard, all inhibited spore germination and mycelium growth and thereby reduced spore density of F. oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemi Snyder & Hansen, resulting in zero incidence of wilt disease in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum carinatum Schoush) plants in greenhouse (Bowers and Locke 2000). Soil treated with 60 % aqueous leaf extract of A. squamosa, T. erecta or Bauhinia scadens L. (Cannayane and Rajendran 2013), or incorporation of leaf powder (10 g/plant) of Psidium guajava L., Melia azedarach L. or Eucalyptus sp. prevented completely the entry of and gall formation by M. incognita in the eggplant and tomato crops (Jayakumar et al. 2002). Citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans Cobb
Phytoparasitica
incidence was reduced in acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) by 38 % and yield was increased by 25 % (22.5 t/ha versus 18 t/ha in untreated orchard) when NC at 100 g/tree was mixed with soil by hoeing (Shanthi and Sivakumar 2011). Mulching of raw plant material Chopped fresh neem leaves were mixed with soil at 10 t/ ha by hoeing the ginger (Zinziber officinale Rosc.) field. This treatment significantly reduced infestation of the shoot borer, Conogethes (Dichocricis) punctiferalis Guen., and was as effective as 0.05 % quinalphos (25EC) in killing larvae (Lalnuntluanga and Singh 2008). Bushes of peanut, leaves of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre or plants of sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) were ploughed into soil at 4 t/ha after sprinkling Trichoderma harzianum Tul. powder. This treatment resulted in 3times lower incidence of wilt by blocking development of Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., and a six-fold higher yield than in untreated jasmine [Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait.] (Ramamoorthy et al. 2000). In ginger crop, mulching of fresh chopped neem leaves at 10 t/ha prevented spore germination and mycelium growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiber and subsequently reduced the incidence of soft rot by 50 % (Mezhatsu et al. 2008). In chickpea crop, leaves of Argemone mexicana L., C. procera, Eichhornia sp. or Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. incorporated into soil inhibited sporulation and growth of five soil-inhabiting fungi (viz. Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid., Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht, Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, Phyllocsticta phaseolina Sacc., Sclerotium rolfsii), and also prevented entry into roots of four species of nematodes (M. incognita, R. reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus brassiace Siddiqi, Hoploaimus indicus) (Rizvi et al. 2012). Mature dried leaves of neem, D. stramonium., C. procera, or T. erecta were thoroughly mixed with soil at 75 g/kg of soil in pots in which okra seedlings were transplanted, and second stage juveniles of nematodes were introduced. After the treatment, there was >60 % reduction in egg masses, >50 % reduction in root galls and >55 % reduction in reproduction factor (Hussain et al. 2011). Incorporation of Fumara parviflora Lam (30 g fresh chopped whole plant in a kg of soil), 2 weeks before transplanting of tomato seedlings in the field, and 15 and 30 days after potting in the greenhouse was assessed 60-days after planting.
This treatment significantly reduced the number of root galls/plant (62–82 versus 123–124 in control), egg masses of M. incognita/g of root (1728–2971 versus 7044–7136 in control) and number of adult females/g of root (1549–2922 versus 6334–6382 in control) (Naz et al. 2015). Generally, both the incorporation of plant products into soil and mulching of raw material are included in cultural operations. However, farmers prefer the first method as decomposition of plant parts takes some time and soil humidity facilitates it. Moreover, plant material decomposed in soil releases compounds that are toxic to insects, plant pathogens and nematodes (Hussain et al. 2011).
Seedling root dipping When seedling roots of capsicum pepper were dipped in 1 % NO before transplanting, NO exerted systemic action and was transported to fruits, and acted as deterrent to the fruit borers (Helicoverpa armigera Hbn., Spodoptera litura Fb.) (Rao et al. 1998). Root-dip of paddy seedlings in a mixture of 10 % neem cake extract + 1 % urea against the leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens (Distant) resulted in low adult emergence (13.3 % versus 85.5 % in control) and growth index (0.76 versus 5.5 in control) due to growth regulating mode of action of neem cake (Dash and Senapati 1995). Bare root-dip treatment of tomato seedlings with Nimin®, oil of neem, castor, mustard or Eruca sativa Mill., all at 0.3 %, significantly reduced root-knot index (1–5 scale) from 4 in control to 0.4 in Nimin and 0.5–0.8 in oils, and lowered M. incognita populations in a sample of 250 g soil, from 1650 in control to 378 in Nimin and 495–539 in oils (Akhtar and Mahmood 1993). Root dipping in systemic synthetic fungicides is a common recommendation for vegetables against pests and diseases. These chemicals can however be replaced with plant products as shown by the previous examples.
Injecting plant products into tree stem In litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) trees, injection of AZ (at 0.17 g active ingredient (a.i.)/cm diameter of the trunk) killed the stink bug, Tessarotoma papillosa Dury and reduced pest infestation up to 55 % in Thailand (Schulte et al. 2006). Trunk injection of AZ, AZ +
Phytoparasitica
abamectin or bark extract of soap tree (Quillaja saponaria Molina) to date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) trees, deterred the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) and resulted in damage-free trees under controlled conditions (Sacco et al. 2011). In coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantations in India, injecting Soluneem® (3000 ppm of AZ-A) into trunk base at 10 mL/tree resulted in >50 % larval mortality and inhibited molting in surviving larvae, affecting adult emergence of the black-headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella Walker (Shivashankar et al. 2000). Similarly, when AZ (0.4 g/L) was injected into the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis L.) trees in West Africa, there was 38.9 % grub mortality in the dry season and 19.3 % in the wet season of the leaf mining beetle, Coelaenomenodera lameensis Bert. & Mariau (Tano et al. 2011). These field trials confirmed the bio-efficacy of the neem products in controlling major insect pests of fruit trees. Therefore, this technique may prove effective in other plantation crops, such as banana, mango and pomegranate.
Spraying Foliar application is extensively used in plant protection and exhaustive literature is available (Van der Meijden 1998; Matthews 2000; FAO 2001; Wilson 2003; Bateman 2003; Gahukar 2014, 2015). Therefore, this method is not discussed here, current related aspects are however included to understand the potential. In developing and less developed countries, foliar spraying of plant-derived products is common because plant material can be procured easily as it is readily available round the year. Among local plants, neem, V. negundo and A. squamosa have been extensively used for preparing crude extract (5 %, 10 %) in water (Gahukar 2014). The extract is filtered and sprayed after adding sticker (soap water, sandovit®) for better retention. Extracts, emulsifiable concentrates and water solutions are generally sprayed at 500 L/ha with knapsack sprayers. Spray applications have an effect on spray deposition and bio-efficacy of the product (Dekeyser et al. 2014; Pascuzzi and Cerruto 2015). FAO (2001) published guidelines for ground application of pesticides including plant products. Generally, the boom sprayers and funnel sprayers are better than the conventional sprayers (knapsack sprayer, foot sprayer, motorized or battery-operated knapsack sprayer, centrifugal rotary disc type sprayer and compression sprayer) in regards to spray drift in
certain crops (Jensen and Olesen 2014; Al-Heidary et al. 2014). Nowadays, farmers prefer controlled droplet application atomizers for improved formulations since a greater number of fine droplets are produced by the device, deposition on target area is better, and full coverage of crop canopy is possible. Also, getting an ideal droplet size of 10–15 u, 30–50 u and 60–150 u for flying insects, crawling and sucking insects and plant surface, respectively, can be achieved (Matthews 2000). Similarly, identification and biology of pest species and plant pathogens can facilitate to direct sprays on the targeted growth stage and make pest control more effective. Often, farmers in poor countries do not follow instructions specified for spraying plant-derived products and therefore, a desirable pest control is difficult to achieve (Gahukar 2014). Effectiveness of sprays depends upon the quality of pesticide, timing and type of application and crop coverage. For this, calibration of spray can play an important role (Hofman and Solseng 2004) whenever quality checking in raw material and active ingredient in local preparations is lacking. In the tropics, sprays can be washed off plants during heavy rains and degradation of active ingredient occurs due to high temperatures. Moreover, non-availability of labor and water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions can affect spraying operations (Gahukar 2014). Therefore, repeated applications are needed for effective control. Further, since plant products have slow action, poor contact toxicity and reduced residual persistence, farmers prefer ready-to-use commercial formulations (Gahukar 2014). In future, testing of application methods would be worthwhile so that adoption may occur on small and marginal farms.
Lures and baits Olfactory bioassay revealed that among 13 fatty acids isolated from Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng, only palmitic acid at 5.42 μg attracted cucumber beetles, Aulacophora foveicollis Lucas which were later killed in baited traps (Mukherjee et al. 2014). Traditional baits containing indigenous plant materials have been used with satisfactory pest control in the Blure and kill^ technique. In India, a mixture of pulp of ripe banana (Musa paradisiaca L.) fruit + water extract of basil (Ocimum sanctum L.) leaves attracts fruit flies, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coq.). The trapped flies are then killed with insecticides (Satpathy and Rai 2002). In the
Phytoparasitica
Philippines, a mixture of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), toddy (fermented juice) + sugar (1:1) has been used in traps to attract cucurbit fruit flies (B. cucurbitae, Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel and Bactrocera tau Walker). By this method, up to 30 flies/trap could be collected and a yield loss of 42 % in Momordica charantica L. could be avoided (Barba and Tablizo 2014). It is possible that pests can develop resistance to plant-derived products used in baits, continuous monitoring may therefore be needed (Humeres and Morse 2006).
Other methods In Bangladesh, sweet gourd (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) seedlings in glasshouse were covered with mosquito net sprayed with 5 % NSKE at weekly intervals. This treatment repelled the red pumpkin beetles (Aulacophora foveicollis L.) and was more effective in checking infestation than carbofuran (10 %) granules (5 g/plant) applied into soil 3-days before planting or spraying plants with NO (10 mL/L) (Khorsheduzzaman et al. 2010). The recently developed silica sol–gel dispenser carrying volatiles (trans-2-hexen-1-al, trans-2-hexen-1-ol, cis-3hexen-1-ol) emitted by tea plants, Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntz helped to trap aphids, Toxoptera aurantii Boyer for 17-days in greenhouse. These aphids were later killed with insecticide treatment (Bian et al. 2014). Swoboda-Bhattarai and Burrack (2014) tested two commercial products (Primafresh 45®, Raynox®) containing edible wax isolated from leaves of the Brazilian palm, Copernicia prunifera (Mill.) Moore. A single thin coating significantly reduced survival of maggots of Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) in raspberries in the USA (Swoboda-Bhattarai and Burrack 2014). Coating of 10 % gum from Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. mixed with 1 % chitosan suppressed mycelial growth up to 100 % and inhibited conidial germination up to 92.5 % of Colletotrichum musae (Berk & Curtis) Arx, the causal agent of the post-harvest anthracnose of banana fruit (Maqbool et al. 2010). Bill et al. (2014) reported reduced mycelial growth and fungicidal effects of a thin coating of a mixture (3:1, v/v) of 1 % chitosan + 1 % oil of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) due to the content of phenolic compounds in thyme oil. They recommended this treatment as preventive or curative measure against anthracnose, Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. in the postharvest storage of avocado, Persea americana Mill.. In
green gram, Vigna radiata (L.) pot culture, the development and population density of the nematode M. incognita were adversely affected (as indicated by root-knot index of 1–1.3 versus 4.6 in untreated plants and root nodule index of 3.3-4.3 versus 1.0 in untreated plants) when urea coated with Nimin®, oil of neem, castor or E. sativa was incorporated into soil at 0.06 g/ pot (Wani and Bhat 2012). Conclusively, all methods dealt with proved effective in controlling insects, nematodes and diseases. However, economic data (treatment cost, net profit) and comparison with chemical treatment and other plant protection measures are often lacking in experimentation. This aspect is important to convince farmers.
Perspective Integrated strategy In integrated control, application methods discussed below have been used in combination or sequentially to make the package effective. In mulberry (Morus alba L.) plantations, soil incorporation of NC at 150 kg/ha, spraying NO (3 %) at three doses at 10-days interval and sowing of Sesbania aculeata (willd.) Pers. as green manure at 30 kg/ha reduced infestation of the leaf webber Diaphenia pulverulentalis (Hmp.) and the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) by 21 and 36 %, respectively (Ravikumar et al. 2010). Kumar et al. (2005) applied AZ against the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. on tomato plants grown in greenhouse, and observed that foliar spraying (10 mL/L), soil drenching (3 g/L) and seed treatment (3 g/kg), reduced oviposition of the whitefly by 44, 74 and 82 %, respectively, and caused mortality of 93, 91 and 35 %, respectively. In case of NeemAzal-T/S® (1 % AZ) and NeemAzal-U® (17 % AZ), after comparing foliar application and soil drenching against B. tabaci, Kumar and Poehling (2006) concluded that soil drenching was better due to systemic action (45 % mortality 7-days after treatment versus only 7 % mortality with foliar treatment) and residual persistence was better due to reduced dissipation of active ingredient. For paddy seedlings, Alice and Sujeetha (2008) compared seed treatment, seedling root dipping and foliar sprays of 3 % NO, 5 % NSKE and 5 % leaf extract of Vitex negundo L. or Cantharanthus roseus (L.) Don, and 0.05 % oil of Cymbopogan maritinii (Roxb.) Wats. or
Phytoparasitica
1 % oil of Jatropha curcas L. In this trial, NSKE sprays proved most effective in controlling the white-backed plant hopper, Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) with only 20 % survival (86.6 % in control) and growth index of 1.4 (7.4 in control) followed by seedling dipping with 36.7 % survival (91.8 % in control) and growth index of 2.6 (8.3 in control) and seed treatment with 46.6 % survival (90.3 % in control) and growth index of 3.2 (7.9 in control). In greenhouse experiments for controlling the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidenatlis (Pergande) on bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Thoeming and Poehling (2006) reported increased pest mortality (99 % versus 85 % mortality with predation alone) when predation by mites [Amblyseius cucumeris (Oudemans), Hypoaspis aculeifer (Canestrini)] was integrated with AZ soil application (100 mg AZ/L). Further, soil application of NeemAzal–TS® or neem pellets (7 % AZ) integrated with entomopathogenic fungi [Beauveria bassiana (Bals. - Criv.) Vuill., and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metch) Sorokin], and nematode (Steinernema carpocapse Weiser) resulted in 97 % mortality of F. occidentalis (Otiens and Poehling 2014). For management of sesamum diseases, Jayalakshmi et al. (2013) recommended pre-sowing soil incorporation of NC at 250 kg/ha, seed treatment at 4 g/kg and soil application at 2.5 kg/ha of Trichoderma viride (Pers.) followed by foliar spraying of AZ (0.03 %) at 3 mL/L, 30 days and 45 days after sowing. This rate significantly reduced incidence of three diseases at a time, e.g., root rot, Macrophomina bataticola (Taub.) Butl. (incidence from 17.7 to 2.5 %); powdery mildew, Leveillula taurica Lev. (from 11.9 to 2 %); and alternaria leaf spot, Alternaria sesami Kawamura (from 19.4 to 2.5 %); and significantly increased seed yield (763 kg/ha versus 520 kg/ha in control). Integration of incorporation of mustard cake and soil bacterium, Bacillus subtilis Cohn, seed treatment with 10 % water extract of Allium sativum L. rhizome, and soil solarization killed the pathogen Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn and therefore no disease (root rot/web blight) was recorded on French/kidney bean (Sharma and Gupta 2003). Choudhary et al. (2000) experimented soil incorporation of a mixture of T. viride at 15 g + chestnut compound (a fungicide) 25 mL + NC 100 g in a kg of soil, and obtained 100 % control of wilt disease (S. rolfsii) in capsicum bell pepper. Before planting of the sweet gourd (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne) crop, root dipping followed by soil drenching with a neem seed coat extract (25 g/ 100 mL) was tested. This package of practices resulted
in 100 % mortality of the parasitic nematode Meloidogyne javanica Treub (Yasmin et al. 2003). Two pre-planting treatments [root dipping of the sweet gourd (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne) seedlings and soil drenching with a neem seed coat extract (25 g/100 mL)] resulted in 100 % mortality of M. javanica (Yasmin et al. 2003). Chakraborti (2000) studied mulching of neem leaves before planting, seed treatment and dipping of roots in AZ (10 %), foliar sprays of AZ (45 % a.i.), NC application on seed bed (2 kg/m2) followed by its field application (300 kg/ha) at transplanting and every 30days thereafter. This combination resulted in the lowest nematode population density (30 juveniles per 250 g soil) and highest grain yield (35 t/ha). Furthermore, Sivakumar and Gunasekaran (2011) tested a seed treatment with polymer coating followed by dipping seedling roots in 0.2 % NO (60EC) and reported reduction in the populations of M. incognita by 48.6 % in tomato, 51.7 % in capsicum pepper and 39.6 % in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), and an increase in crop yields by 52.3, 47.3 and 41.7 %, respectively. These examples showed that the combinations of methods can certainly be effective, economic and practical even for small and marginal farmers with limited money. Standardization of application methods and equipment Standardization of crude products is important because the active ingredient content may differ as per raw material whereas in commercial products, this factor is taken into account. For example, neem EC products with variable content of AZ (300–10,000 ppm) are applied at different concentrations. It is important to develop desired skill of operation so that the crop is treated in stipulated time by optimizing use of the equipment with proper dosage, proper droplet size and density on the targeted plant part. For applying plantderived products, the equipment is developed and experimented every year (Matthews 2000; Bateman 2003). For example, Nansen et al. (2010) prepared a spraying device using an artist airbrush with 0.3 mm needle, a wooden frame (12.8 × 29.6 cm, made from 1.3 × 3.7 cm boards), a modified soda bottle (10.7 cm diam.), a plastic funnel and metal rings. The airbrush is connected to a gas-pressure regulator and can be used to spray plant products. Herlekar (2014) fabricated a vial for putting nanogel containing methyl eugenol for the management of cucurbit fruit flies. The compound attracts male flies which are trapped and killed. This vial
Phytoparasitica
remains effective in attractiveness for about 30 weeks under field conditions. Although the economic viability and large scale use feasibility remain to be studied, these simple methods need vigorous testing in small areas of crop cultivation before they are promoted. Overall, more research is needed to develop effective application techniques for biopesticides including plant-derived products (Gan-Mor and Matthews 2003). Farmers use unspecified quantity of plant products/ spray liquid for application and faulty equipment due to non-availability of required equipment and the labor scarcity in rural areas in the less developed and developing countries (Gahukar 2014; Sola et al. 2014). In fact, accurate application rates for effective pest control are difficult to maintain with poorly maintained or incorrectly calibrated sprayers. Also, appropriate equipment is needed for uniform coverage and for increased persistence (Craig et al. 2014). Thus, the standardization of application methods is important for product effectiveness. Nevertheless, adherence to quality of sprayers is difficult whenever sprayers are distributed on subsidized rate. There is also a free trade of home-made products that are not registered with local authorities. Cost of treatment and related aspects In agricultural crops, cost of application per unit area is calculated on the basis of labor charges, cost of insecticide and equipment hiring and supervision charges (Table 2). Major reasons for fluctuations in cost are local price structure, government policy (subsidy, taxes), crop treated and availability of farm inputs. Therefore, there is wide variation in cost estimation from farmer to farmer, region to region etc. Also, treatment cost is difficult to calculate in circumstances where farmers spray themselves with home-made products, particularly water extracts. Plant products when used in combination with synthetic and biopesticides or other control measures may reduce the cost of treatment mostly because the dose of synthetic pesticides can be halved (Gahukar 2014). Recently, Mkenda et al. (2015) reported that the use of extracts from field margin weeds [Tephrosia vogelii Hook and T. diversifolia (Rose)] resulted in a net profit of US $ 5.5/ha compared to US $ 4.0/ha from spraying of the synthetic pesticide karate® (cyhalothrin) in Tanzania. The labor cost of collecting and processing plants was less than the cost of pesticide. Finally, an incremental benefit is calculated as: (financial return from increased yield – total treatment cost)/
total treatment cost. In some cases, cost: benefit ratio is given which is based on total benefits and total cost of treatment. Generally, crop yield is higher in chemicaltreated fields with lower cost of application than in fields treated with plant products (Table 2). Therefore, economic benefit is much greater with chemicals. Among neem products used in agriculture, NSKE is certainly a profitable treatment than NO as per results obtained in various crops discussed in the text. In traditional preparations, cost depends on the type of sticker and stabilizer and volume of spray tank mix. Generally, farmers spray tank mix at 500 L/ha with high-volume sprayers since low-volume is not recommended for plant products in order to cover whole plant thoroughly. There are also other problems with illegal home-made plant products such as malpractices, faulty equipment, scarcity of water, labor availability during the period of operation peaks, sale of products after expiry date and lack of knowledge on product application (Gahukar 1990; van der Meijden 1998). Poor farmers who cannot afford market products resort to indigenous preparations often mixed with cow urine, extract of local plants and obtain reasonable bioefficacy (Gahukar 2014). Other plant products that farmers usually apply include crude oil extracted from neem seed or kernel and defatted neem cake. Incorporation of cake or granules into soil is effective against nematodes, termites and other soil-inhabiting insects and plant pathogens, and is normally included in cultural operations. In fact, >50 % of cost in crop cultivation is attributed to plant protection (Gahukar 2014). Extension for promoting plant products will encourage organic farmers to apply these eco-friendly products Table 2 Examples of crop yield and treatment cost for chemicals and plant products in India Crop
Treatment
Yield/ha Cost*/ha Reference
Sesamum Dichlorvos 0.05 % NO 1 %
408 kg
$ 13
Wazire and Patel 2015
313 kg
$ 41
Eggplant Cypermethrin 0.0075 % NSKE 5 %
23.6 t
$ 27.5
20.7 t
$ 53.9
Green gram
NO 2 % NSKE 5 %
87 kg 247 kg
$ 22 $8
Saha et al. 2013
Okra
NO 2 % NSKE 5 %
45 q 42.8 q
$ 120 $ 57.8
Kayande et al. 2015
Budhvat et al. 2014
*Amount converted at 60 Indian Rupees = 1 US Dollar
Phytoparasitica
on large farms. However, organic certification is lacking or is rather costly for small farmers in less developed countries. Currently, strict legislation on the product sale, knowledge on equipment, awareness on safety measure seem to be necessary and need attention of government agencies.
Conclusion Large scale adoption of plant products even by the small and marginal farmers is possible with government initiative. Since these products fit very well in integrated pest management, farmers can be convinced of low treatment cost, better bio-efficacy, environment-friendliness and possibility of organic food production. In this strategy, plant protection on crop basis rather on pest or disease basis is applied, thus saving cost on individual treatment. Further, products of neem and other plants can control pests and diseases at the same time. This measure can save the cost considerably with proper application method and choice of equipment. Indigenous plants are easily available in plenty. Surveys of plant species which can be used in plant protection may add to the existing list of local and regional flora. Overall, each method has its merits but cost of treatment remains a major criterion while recommending the effective and economical method and products. Therefore, in IPM, sequential applications are followed. On individual basis, seed treatment can be recommended for seed crops whereas foliar application can be suggested for all crops. In order to promote both application method and a particular plant product, in some countries like India, a step forward of supplying plant products on subsidy is appreciated by farmers and implementation of the strategy on organic farming is underway (Gahukar 2014). In some instances, the treatment cost with chemicals is lower than that for plant products. For this, farmers need to be educated and convinced of toxic effects of synthetic pesticides vis-a-vis plant products on beneficial organism and environment, besides the risk of chemical residues in food. Acknowledgments I am greatly thankful to Dr. S.S. Nilakhe, State Entomologist, Texas Department of Agriculture, Austin, TX, USA, for his critics and improving English of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to reviewers for the corrections and valuable suggestions.
References
Akhtar, M., & Mahmood, I. (1993). Control of plant parasitic nematodes with Nimin and some plant oils by bare root-dip treatment. Nematologia Mediterranea, 21(1), 89–92. Akhtar, M., & Mahmood, I. (1997). Control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita in tomato plants by seed coating with Suneem and neem oil. Journal of Pesticide Science, 22(1), 37–38. Al-Heidary, M., Douzals, J. P., Sinfort, C., & Vallet, A. (2014). Influence of spray characteristics on potential spray drift of field crop sprayers: a literature review. Crop Protection, 63, 120–130. Alice, J., & Sujeetha, R. P. (2008). The biological and behavioural impact of indigenous plant products on rice white-backed plant hopper (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) (Homoptera: Delphacidae). Journal of Biopesticides, 1(2), 193–196. Barba, R. B., & Tablizo, R. P. (2014). Organic-band attractant for the control of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) infesting ampalaya, Momordica charantia L. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 3(9), 348–355. Bateman, R. P. (2003). Rationale pesticide use spatially and temporally targeted application of specific products. In Optimising pesticide use (pp. 129–157). Chichester: Wiley. Bhattacharya, A., Barik, S. R., & Ganguly, P. (2009). New pesticide molecules, formulation technology and uses: present status and future challenges. Journal of Plant Protection Science, 1(1), 9–15. Bian, L., Sun, X. L., Cai, X. M., & Chen, Z. M. (2014). Slow release of plant volatiles using sol-gel dispenser. Journal of Economic Entomology, 107(6), 2023–2029. Bill, M., Sivakumar, D., Korsten, Z., & Thompson, A. K. (2014). The efficacy of combined application of edible coatings and thyme oil in inducing resistance components in avocado (Persea americana Mill.) against anthracnose during postharvest storage. Crop Protection, 64, 159–167. Bonzi, S., Somda, l., Zida, P. E., & Sereme, P. (2012). Efficacy of plant extracts on P. sorghina in seed treatment. World Applied Science Journal, 20(11), 1549–1553. Bowers, J. H., & Locke, J. C. (2000). Effect of botanical extracts on the population density of Fusarium oxysporum in soil and control of fusarium wilt in the greenhouse. Plant Disease, 84, 300–305. Budhvat, K. P., Gawande, R. W., Sawai, H. R., & Deotale, R. O. (2014). Impact of different treatments against shoot and fruit borer on brinjal. Pestology, 38(10), 50–54. Cannayane, I., & Rajendran, G. (2013). Penetration of Meloidogyne incognita (Race-3) in tomato and brinjal roots treated with botanical extracts. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 31, 84–86. Chakraborti, S. (2000). Evaluation of neem products on management of ufra disease of rice. Indian Journal of Nematology, 30(2), 234–236. Chandrashekhara, J., Raj, S., Niranjan, S., Manjunath, G., Deepak, S., & Shetty, S. H. (2010). Seed treatment with aqueous extract of Viscum album induces resistance to pearl millet downy mildew pathogen. Journal of Plant Interactions, 5(4), 283–291.
Phytoparasitica Choudhary, A. K., Rajaram Reddy, D., Chandrasekhara Rao, K., Bhupal Reddy, T., & Prabhakar Reddy, I. (2000). Integrated management of sclerotial wilt disease of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 28, 15–18. Craig, I. P., Hewitt, A., & Terry, H. (2014). Rotary atomizer design requirements for optimum pesticide application efficiency. Crop Protection, 66, 34–39. Dash, A. N., & Senapati, B. (1995). Efficacy of neem derivatives as rice seedlings root-dip against green leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens (Distant) under greenhouse conditions. Journal of Entomological Research, 19(1), 33–38. Dayan, E. F., Cantrell, C. L., & Duke, S. O. (2009). Natural products in crop protection. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, 17, 4022–4034. Dekeyser, D., Foque, D., Duga, A. T., Verboven, P., Hendrickx, N., & Nuyttens, D. (2014). Spray deposition assessment using different application techniques in artificial orchard trees. Crop Protection, 64, 187–197. FAO. (2001). Guidelines on good practice for ground application of pesticides. Rome: Food & Agriculture Organization. Gahukar, R. T. (1990). Role of extension in protecting food crops in sub-Saharan Africa. Outlook on Agriculture, 19(2), 119– 123. Gahukar, R. T. (2013). Cow urine: a potential biopesticide. Indian Journal of Entomology, 75(3), 212–216. Gahukar, R. T. (2014). Potential and utilization of plant products in pest control. In D. P. Abrol (Ed.), Integrated pest management: Current concepts and ecological perspective (pp. 125– 139). New York: Elsevier Inc. Gahukar, R. T. (2015). Biopesticides for environmental safety: Recent approaches to pestcontrol in agricultural crops. In J. N. Govil (Ed.), Environmental science and engineering (Vol. 6, pp. 377–394). Houston: Studium Press LLC. Gan-Mor, S., & Matthews, G. A. (2003). Recent developments in sprayers for application of biopesticides: An overview. Biosystems Engineering, 84(2), 119–125. Gerwick, B. C., & Sparks, T. C. (2014). Natural products for pest control: an analysis of their role, value and future. Pest Management Science, 70(8), 1169–1185. Herlekar, I. (2014). Using nano technology to control pests: trapping fruit fly using pheromone gels. Current Science, 106(1), 14–15. Hofman, V., & Solseng, E. (2004). Spray equipment and calibration. Fargo: North Dakota State University, Extension Service. Humeres, E., & Morse, J. C. (2006). Resistance of avocado thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) to sabadilla, a botanically derived bait. Pest Management Science, 62(9), 886–889. Hussain, M. A., Mukhtar, T., & Kayani, M. Z. (2011). Efficacy evaluation of Azadirachta indica, Caloropis procera, Datura stramonium and Tagetes erecta against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 43(special issue), 197–204. Jagginawar, S. B., & Krishna Naik, L. (2001). Preventive method of management of shot hole borer, Xyloborus perforans Wollastan (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) on pomegranate. Pestology, 25(8), 36–40. Jayakumar, J., Ramakrishnan, S., & Rajendran, G. (2002). Role of dry leaves of certain plants as soil amendments in management of root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid
& White) in tomato. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 30, 77–78. Jayalakshmi, C., Rettinassababady, C., & Nema, S. (2013). Integrated management of sesame diseases. Journal of Biopesticides, 6(1), 68–70. Jensen, P. K., & Olesen, M. H. (2014). Spray mass balance in pesticide application: a review. Crop Protection, 61, 23–31. Joymati, D. L., Christina, D. K., & Ronibala, D. K. (2012). Effect of essential oil extract of medicinal plants against root-knot nematode on kidney bean. Annals of Plant Protection Science, 20(2), 441–443. Kamdi, D. R., Mondha, M. K., Jadesha, G., Kshirsagar, D. N., & Thakur, K. D. (2012). Efficacy of botanicals, bioagents and fungicides against Fusraium oxysoprum F. sp. ciceri in chickpea wilt sick plot. Annals of Biological Research, 3(1), 5390– 5392. Karthikairaj, K., Sevarkodiyone, S. P., Pavaraj, M., Balaji, S., Senthikumar, P., & Kalaivani, A. (2012). Effect of organic amendments on the level of chemical constituents of redgram, Cajanus cajan infected with root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 12(8), 1068–1071. Kayande, S. G., Deotale, R. O., Lavhe, N. V., & Patil, K. A. (2015). Evaluation of different botanicals against major sucking pests of okra. Pestology, 39(7), 16–23. Khorsheduzzaman, A. K. M., Nessa, Z., & Rahman, M. A. (2010). Evaluation of mosquitonet barrier on cucurbit seedling with other chemical, mechanical and botanical approaches for suppression of red pumpkin beetle damage in cucurbit. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research, 35(3), 395– 401. Kumar, P., & Poehling, H. M. (2006). Persistence of soil and foliar azadirachtin treatments to control sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on tomatoes under controlled (laboratory) and field (netted greenhouse) conditions in the humid tropics. Journal of Pest Science, 79(4), 189–199. Kumar, S., & Singh, D. (2011). Management of Meloidogyne incognita through organic amendments in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Pestology, 35(8), 23–25. Kumar, P., Poehling, H. M., & Borgemeister, C. (2005). Effects of different application methods of azadirachtin against sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hom., Aleyrodidae) on tomato plants. Journal of Applied Entomology, 129, 489–497. Lalnuntluanga, J., & Singh, H. K. (2008). Performance of certain chemicals and neem formulations against ginger shoot borer (Dichocricis punctiferalis Guen.). Indian Journal of Entomology, 70, 182–186. Maqbool, M., Ali, A., Ramachandran, S., Smith, D. R., & Alderson, P. G. (2010). Control of post-harvest anthracnose of banana using a new edible composite coating. Crop Protection, 29, 1136–1141. Matthews, G. A. (2000). Pesticide application methods (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Science Limited. Mezhatsu, R., Daiho, L., & Upadhyay, D. N. (2008). Integrated management of rhizome rot of ginger caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiber. Journal of Ecofriendly Agriculture, 3(1), 75–77. Mkenda, P., Mwanauta, R., Stevenson, P. C., Ndakidemi, P., Mtei, K., & Belmain, S. R. (2015). Extracts from field margin
Phytoparasitica weeds provide economically viable an environmentally benign pest control compared to synthetic pesticides. PLoS ONE, 10(11), e0143530. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143530. Mukherjee, A., Sarkar, N., Barik, A., & 3. (2014). Long-chain free fatty acids from Momordica cochinchinensis leaves as attractants to its insect pest, Aulacophora foveicollis Lucas (Coleoptera: Chrysomeliade). Journal of Asia-Pacific Eomology, 17, 229–234. Nansen, C., Hinson, B., Davidson, D., Vaughn, K., & Gharalari, A. H. (2010). Novel approaches in application and performance assessment of insecticide applications in crop leaves. Journal of Economic Entomology, 103, 219–227. Naz, I., Saifullah, Palomares-Rius, J. E., Khan, S. M., Ali, S., Ahmad, M., Ali, A., & Khan, A. (2015). Control of southern root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood on tomato using green manure of Fumara parviflora Lam (Fumaraceae). Crop Protection, 67, 121–129. Otiens, J. A., & Poehling, H. M. (2014). Combination of soilapplied azadirachtin with entomopathogens for integrated management of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidenatlis. In Tropentag 2014, Conference on Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural and Natural Resource Management: Bridging the gap between increasing knowledge and decreasing resources. Prague, Czech Republic, 1718 Sep. 2014 (Abstact) http://www.tropentag.de/2014 /abstracts/links/Otiens_TU3X4ZNz.pdf. Pascuzzi, S., & Cerruto, E. (2015). Spray deposition in Btendon^ vineyards when using a pneumatic electrostatic sprayer. Crop Protection, 68, 1–11. Pavela, R., Barnet, M., & Kocourek, F. (2004). Effect of azadirachtin applied systemically through roots of plants on the mortality, development and fecundity of the cabbage aphid (Brevicornye brassicae). Phytoparasitica, 32(3), 286–294. Ramamoorthy, V., Alice, D., Meena, B., Muthusamy, M., & Seetharaman, K. (2000). Biological management of sclerotium wilt of jasmine. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 28, 102–104. Rao, M. N., Muralidhara Rao, G., & Tirumala Rao, D. (1998). Efficacy of neem products and their combinations against chilli pod borers. Andhra Agriculture Journal, 45, 179–181. Rathore, B. S., & Sundria, M. M. (2011). Comparative efficacy of pesticides and botanicals against diseases and pests of blond psyllium. Indian Phytopathology, 64(1), 97–99. Ravikumar, J., Samuthiravelu, P., Qadri, S. M. H., Hemanthkumar, L., & Jayaraj, S. (2010). Integrated pest management (IPM) module for tukra mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and leaf webber, Diaphenia pulverulentalis (Hamp.) in mulberry. Journal of Biopesticides, 3(1), 354– 357 (Special issue). Regnault-Roger, C., & Philogene, B. J. R. (2008). Past and current prospects for the use of botanicals and plant allelochemicals in integrated pest management. Pharmaceutical Biology, 46, 41–52. Riyajan, A. A., & Sakdapipanich, J. T. (2009). Encapsulated neem extract containing azadirachtin-A within hydrolyzed poly (vinyl acetate) for controlling its release and photodegradation stability. Chemical Engineering Journal, 152, 591–597. Rizvi, R., Mahmood, I., Tiyagi, S. A., & Khan, Z. (2012). Effect of some botanicals for the management of plant parasitic
nematodes and soil-inhabiting fungi infesting chickpea. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 36, 710–719. Sacco, M., Cangelosi, B., Arato, E., Littardi, C., & Pasini, C. (2011). Efficacy of different insecticides against Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) under controlled conditions on palms (Phoenix canariensis). Protzione delle Colture, 4, 90–98. Saha, T., Patil, R. K., & Nithya, C. (2013). Bioefficacy of botanicals against seed weevil, Apion amplum (Faust) (Apionidae: Coleoptera) in green gram. Indian Journal of Entomology, 75(1), 72–76. Satpathy, S., & Rai, S. (2002). Luring ability of indigenous food baits for fruit fly, Batrocera cucurbitae (Coq.). Indian Journal of Entomology, 26(3), 249–252. Schulte, M. J., Martin, K., & Sauerborn, J. (2006). Effects of azadirachtin injection in litchi trees (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) on the litchi stink bug (Tessartoma papillosa Dury) in northern Thailand. Journal of Pest Science, 29(4), 241–250. Seenivasan, N. (2011). Bioefficacy of anti-nemic plants against root-knot nematode in medicinal coleus. Journal of Ecofriendly Agriculture, 6, 92–96. Shanthi, A., & Sivakumar, M. (2011). Integrated management of citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans on acid lime. Pestology, 35(1), 35–37. Sharma, M., & Gupta, S. K. (2003). Ecofriendly methods for the management of root-rot and web blight (Rhizoctonia solani) of French bean. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 33(3), 345–361. Shivashankar, T., Annadurai, R. S., Srinivas, M., Preethi, G., Sharada, T. B., Paramashivappa, R., Rao, A. S., Prabhu, K. S., Ramadoss, C. S., Veeresh, G. K., & Rao, P. V. S. (2000). Control of black-headed caterpillar (Opisina arenosella Walker) by systemic application of ‘Soluneem’: A new water-soluble neem insecticide formulation. Current Science, 78(2), 176–179. Singh, M., & Singh, N. B. (2003). Effect of insecticides on the infestation of termites on emerging shoots and millable canes. Indian Journal of Entomology, 65, 28–33. Singh, M., Lal, K., & Singh, S. B. (2002). Effect of calotropis (Calotropis procera) extract on infestation of termite (Odentotermes obesus) in sugarcane hybrid. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 72, 439–441. Sivakumar, M., & Gunasekaran, K. (2011). Management of rootknot nematodes in tomato, chilli and brinjal by neem oil formulations. Journal of Biopesticides, 4(2), 198–200. Sola, P., Mvumi, B. M., Ogendo, J. O., Mponda, O., Kamawla, J. F., Nyirenda, S. P., Belmain, S. R., & Stevenson, P. C. (2014). Botanical pesticide production, trade and regulatory mechanisms in Sub-Saharan Africa: making a case for plant-based pesticidal products. Food Security, 6, 369–384. Srinivasan Murthy, K., Gour, T. B., Reddy, D. D. R., Ramesh Babu, T., & Zaheerudeen, S. M. (1994). Effect of neem-based insecticides against coconut black headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella through root application. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 22, 207–208. Suthar, N. B., Milchandani, L. H., & Patel, G. M. (1999). Efficacy of some conventional and neem-based insecticides against white grub, Holotrichia consanguinea Blanchard in groundnut in north Gujarat. Pestology, 23(9), 30–34. Swoboda-Bhattarai, K. A., & Burrack, H. J. (2014). Influence of edible fruit coating on Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura)
Phytoparasitica (Diptera: Drosophilidae) oviposition and development. International Journal of Pest Management, 60, 279–286. Tano, D. K. C., Seri-Kouass, B. P., Aboua, L. R. N., & Koua, K. H. (2011). Effect of azadirachtin-A systemic injection on Coelaenomenodera lameensis Bert. and Mariau (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): An oil palm (Elaeis guineensis L.) pest. Journal of Asian Scientific Research, 1(5), 271–284. Thoeming, G., & Poehling, H. M. (2006). Integrating soil-applied azadirachtin with Amblyseius cucumeris (Acari: Phytosiidae) and Hypoaspis aculeifer (Acari: Laelapidae) for the management of Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Environmental Entomology, 35, 746–756. Van der Meijden, G. (1998). Pesticide application techniques in West Africa. Rome: FAO Corporate Document Repository. Vijayalakshmi, K., & Basu, R. (1999). Seed coating of chickpea with neem-based pesticidal formulations for the management
of Meloidogyne incognita. Indian Journal of Nematology, 29(1), 28–32. Wani, A. H., & Bhat, Y. M. (2012). Control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita by urea coated with nimin and other natural oils in mung (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek. Journal of Biopesticides, 5(Suppl), 255– 258. Wazire, N. S., & Patel, J. I. (2015). Efficacy of insecticides against sesamum leaf webber and capsule borer, Antigastra catalaunalis (Duponchel). Indian Journal of Entomology, 77(1), 11–17. Wilson, M. (2003). Optimising pesticide use. Chichester: Wiley. Yasmin, L., Rashid, M. H., Nazimuddin, M., Hossain, M. S., Hossai, M. E., & Ahmed, M. U. (2003). Use of neem extract in controlling root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) of sweet gourd. Plant Pathology Journal, 2, 161–168.