Sex Roles, Vol. 21, Nos. 11/12, 1989

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments, Gender Schematization, Gender Role Knowledge, and Flexibility 1 Gary D. Levy 2

University of Toledo

Sixty 33-60-month-old children's gender role knowledge, gender role flexibility, and gender schematization were assessed. Parents completed questionnaires describing aspects of their chiM's social environment. Results indicated that boys who reportedly interacted more with their fathers, and girls who interacted more with both parents, exhibited greater gender schematization. Children who interacted more with parents displayed less gender role flexibility. Girls with mothers who worked outside the home demonstrated greater gender role flexibility. Boys with many siblings displayed greater gender role knowledge. Children with fewer siblings displayed greater gender role flexibility. Boys favoring entertainment television demonstrated greater gender role knowledge. Girls favoring educational television displayed greater gender

1Completion of this project was facilitated by funds received while the author was a National Institute of Mental Health Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Denver (Grant 5T32 MH 15780-09), in addition to funds from an institutional research grant from Syracuse University and an Academic Challenge Award from the University of Toledo. This support is gratefully acknowledged. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Conference on Human Development, Charleston, South Carolina, March 1988. The author would like to thank the faculty and staff of the Tiny Tot, Jack & Jill, and Upstate Preschool for their assistance and cooperation. The author wishes to recognize Constance Bergh and Tarek Talbot for their exceptional service in conducting the project. The author would also like to thank Joan M. Barth, D. Bruce Carter, Carol L. Martin, Kathyrn A. Park, Charles S. Reichardt, and the anonymous reviewers for their editorial comments and recommendations on earlier drafts of this paper. Thanks also to Susan Harter and Stephen Shirk and members of the Social Cognition Research Group at the University of Denver for their suggestions. Special thanks to Jaipaul L. Roopnarine for his assistance in questionnaire development, and to Nancy Eisenberg, Beverly I. Fagot, Mary D. Leinbach, Lisa A. Serbin, and Marsha Weinraub for their prompt correspondence. 2To whom reprint requests should be addressed at Department of Psychology, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft, Toledo, Ohio 43606. 803 0360-0025/89/120(O~03506.00/0 © 1989 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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role flexibility. Future research and theory evaluating the interactive effects o f social and cognitive factors on boys" and girls" gender role development are encouraged. Contemporary theories of gender role development advance that early gender role development is a complex multidimensional construct affected both by children's cognitive activities (e.g., gender labeling and categorization, selective attention), gender schema (e.g., gender role knowledge, flexibility), and aspects of their social environment 3 (e.g., parents-Brenes, Eisenberg, & Helmstadler, 1985; Katz, 1979, 1983, 1986, siblings-Furman, 1982; Katz & Rank, 1981; Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1970; television-Calvert & Huston, 1987; Frueh & McGhee, 1975; McArthur & Eisen, 1976). But in spite of this multidimensional character, research and theory have tended to examine factors affecting gender role development independently, infrequently specifying the interconnections between social and cognitive factors (viz., Huston, 1983, 1985; Katz, 1986, 1987). Consequently, the social correlates of children's gender role knowledge, flexibility, and gender schematization have only begun to be examined extensively (Carter, 1987; Johnson & Roopnarine, 1983; Martin & Halverson, 1987). This situation is summarized concisely by Katz (1987) in a recent review detailing the relations between family environment variables and gender role development. Katz concludes that "despite the myriad gender role socializing activities parents engage in and the multitude of ways in which their influence is manifested, there are surprisingly few theoretical viewpoints available that specifically delineate these relationships with regard to the cognitive aspects of gender schemata" (pp. 42-43). Thus, although most theories of gender role development suggest that children's social contexts play important roles in gender becoming so salient a category to young children, few have done so in a theoretically specific manner (Carter, 1987; Katz, 1979, 1983, 1986). Instead, theories of gender role development have varied widely in their conceptual foci, and have not explicated the interactive roles of social and cognitive agents. However, one may surmise certain relations in reviewing psychoanalytic, cognitive social learning, cognitive-developmental and gender schema approaches to gender role development (viz., Eisenberg, Wolchik, Hernandez, & Pasternak, 1989; Shepard-Look, 1982). Psychoanalytical explanations of gender role development emphasize preschoolers' initial attachment to their other-sex parent and later identification with their same-sex parent (e.g., Freud, 1939). Cognitive social learn3Biologicalfactors clearlyplay an important part in gender role development.However,they are not of primary concern in the present study.

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments

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ing approaches have emphasized differential reinforcement contingencies, and children's imitation and observational learning of same- and other-sex models (e.g., Bandura, 1977; Bussey, 1983; Bussey & Perry, 1982). Cognitive social learning approaches contend that parents and other significant models reward children's gender role consistent activities and punish their gender role inconsistent conduct (e.g., Kagan, 1971). Although the theoretical cores of these two approaches differ significantly, both suggest that children's amount of interaction with both parents should be positively associated with their learning and adoption of gender roles (Kagan, 1971; Mischel, 1970, 1973). In addition, cognitive social learning approaches suggest that parents who present their children with less traditional gender role models (e.g., mothers working outside the home) will have children with more flexible gender role attitudes (Bussey, 1983; Perry & Bussey, 1979). In general, research has supported the latter prediction (viz., Huston, 1983, 1985; Katz, 1987). For instance, children whose mothers work outside of the home have been found to possess more flexibly gender role stereotype notions, particularly girls (Marantz & Mansfield, 1977; Miller, 1975). Unlike psychoanalytic and cognitive social learning approaches, cognitive-developmental models (Kohlberg, 1966; Kohlberg & Ullian, 1974) highlight children's self-socialization in gender role development. Rather than emphasizing the contributions of external agents to children's gender role learning, cognitive-developmental approaches stress aspects of a child's social environment that represent a child's own choices (e.g., toy preferences). Thus, children's gender-typed choices would be expected to be related to other cognitive gender role factors, such as gender role knowledge and flexibility (Stangor & Ruble, 1987). Age (i.e., level of cognitive development) is also posited to be positively related to children's knowledge and understanding of gender roles (Kohlberg, 1966; Kohlberg & Zigler, 1967). Hence, according to cognitive-developmental theory, children's age and gender role knowledge would be expected to be positively associated with each other as well as with children's gender-typed toy preferences (e.g., Kohlberg, 1966; Stangor & Ruble, 1987). More recent gender schema approaches have focused on children's gender role knowledge, flexibility, and the salience of gender roles to children (Carter & Levy, 1988; Martin & Halverson, 1981, 1987; Signorella, 1987, 1989). The latter variable, often termed genderschematization, has been operationalized as children's readiness to process social information along gender role lines (e.g., Bern, 1981, 1984; Levy, 1989a,b; Levy & Carter, 1989). Research indicates that all three of these social cognitive factors are important components of gender schema (Martin, 1989; Sognorella, 1987, 1989). More recently, Katz (1983, 1986, 1987; Katz & Boswell, 1984) has provided some valuable in sights regarding plausible relationships between partic-

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ular social agents and gender schema (also see Bem, 1984). Katz explains that although children may be cognitively predisposed to organize their world along gender lines, a host of social agents, including the media (i.e., television) and family constellation variables (e.g., siblings), also contribute. Consistent with Katz's assertion, previous research has supported the view that preschoolers' gender role development is affected by their television viewing. Numerious studies indicate that television, particularly children's shows, portray men and women in traditional gender typed roles and that children attend vigilantly to these portrayals (e.g., Calvert & Huston, 1987; Sternglatz & Serbin, 1974). However, akhough research indicates that heavy television viewing by young children is positively associated with high levels of gender typing, correlations between children's amount of television viewing and their gender typing have generally been weak (Calvert & Huston, 1987; Perloff, 1977). McGhee and Frueh (1980) insightfully suggested that examinations of relations among the types of television children watch and their gender typing may be more informative (also see Calvert & Huston, 1987; Tedesco, 1974). Because commercial entertainment television (e.g., cartoons, commercials, reruns) are particularly gender typed compared to educational types of television, children who prefer entertainment television shows might be expected to demonstrate greater gender typing (Calvert & Huston, 1987; McArthur & Eisen, 1976). However, research addressing this hypothesis is lacking. Prior research and theory also suggest important relations among certain sibling constellation variables and gender role development (e.g., Katz & Boswell, 1984; Katz & Rank, 1981; Sutton-Smith & Rosenberg, 1979). For example, in a recent examination comparing gender role development of onlychildren and children with siblings, Katz and Boswell (1984) observed that only-child girls displayed less gender role knowledge of feminine toy stereotypes compared to girls with siblings. Boys and girls with siblings demonstrated greater knowledge of masculine toy stereotypes than only-child children. Additionaly, only-child girls exhibited greater gender role flexibility on a toy preference task than did girls with siblings. These findings converge with other research in demonstrating the importance of siblings on preschoolers' gender role development (Katz, 1986, 1987). Unfortunately, theoretically based predictions in this realm have remained scarce, partly because of the great complexity of both constructs (Katz, 1987). The previous findings highlight one other tenet of Katz's model of gender role development. Specifically, Katz proposes that the effects of particular socialization agents on boys' and girls' gender role development differ substantially (Katz, 1979, 1986, 1987). In a cogent review of research concerning parent's sex-differentiated socialization practices, Block (1983) echoes Katz's conviction (also see Block, 1979, 1981). Block maintains that the diver-

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments

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gent social contexts created for and experienced by boys and girls are manifest in several important differences in the sexes' gender role development (cf., Carpenter, 1983; Chodorow, 1978; Gilligan, 1982). Consequently Block, like Katz, suggests that separate examinations of the influences of social agents on boys' and girls' gender role development are needed to empirically assess the belief that the sexes are socialized differently by parents and other social agents (cf., Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). The present study had two major purposes. One goal was to provide a theory-based examination of relations among aspects of children's social environments and cognitive indices of their gender role development. To this end, the variables employed represent factors explicated by gender role theories as presumably strong influences of gender role development. This collection of predictor variables may at first view appear disjointed and unassociated. However, they all share the characteristic of being pinpointed by various gender role theories and re,arch as important factors in gender role development. A second aim of the present study was to examine differences in the relations among social agents on cognitive indices of girls' and boys' gender role development. This purpose arose from the reasoning of Katz and Block concerning the different pathways of gender role development lead by boys and girls. Thus, separate analyses were conducted on boys' and girls' data. A number of hypotheses, derived from psychoanalytical, cognitive social learning, cognitive-developmental, and gender schema approaches, were made. First, amount of weekly parent-child interaction was expected to be positively associated with children's gender role knowledge and gender schematization. Second, maternal employment outside the home was predicted to be positively associated with children's gender role flexibility, especially for girls. Third, a positive association between children's gender-typed toy preferences and gender role knowledge was predicted. Also, children with gender typed toy preferences were expected to express less gender role flexibility. Fourth, children's age was expected to be positively associated with their gender role knowledge and flexibility. Fifth, children who preferred educational television shows were expected to demonstrate greater gender role flexibility. In contrast, children preferring entertainment television shows were expected to express greater gender role knowledge. Last, children with many siblings were expected to express greater gender role knowledge, but less gender role flexibility. METHOD

Participants and Respondents Sixty 33-60-month-old children (M age = 45.83 months, SD = 7.85; n = 30 boys; n = 30 girls) attending suburban preschools and their mothers

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(n = 60; M age = 34.69 years, SD = 4.01 years) and fathers (n = 56, M age = 36.27 years, SD = 4.94 years) participated. Sixty of 83 families (71°70) returned completed questionnaires. Four out of 60 fathers declined to participate. Pooled mean scores were substituted for these missing father data (Kirk, 1982). Interview and Materials Gender Role Knowledge and Flexibility lndex. The Sex-Role Discrimination (SRD) component of the Sex Role Learning Index (SERLI: Edelbrock & Sugawara, 1978) was employed to examine children's accuracy and flexibility in classifying objects into gender typed categories. The SRD consists of twenty 10 x 10 cm line drawings of common objects. Ten drawings were feminine, ten others were masculine. Children were asked to sort these drawings into one of three categories: for boys only, for girls only, or for both boys and girls. After sorting the drawings into the three categories, the "both" box was removed and children were asked to resort the "both" items into one o f the remaining two categories. Two scores were computed using the standard scoring procedures: (a) total percentage of gender role stereotypes correctly identified, and (b) a percentage score reflecting children's gender role flexibility. Schematic Processing Measure. Thirty-six line drawings of children's toys comprised the schematic processing measure. Each black and white drawing was 10 × 10 cm and pictured a feminine-typed (e.g., a doll), masculinetyped (e.g., a truck), or gender role neutral (e.g., a telephone) toy. Gender typed and neutral items were chosen based on previous research (e.g., Carter & McCloskey, 1984). Illustrations were mounted in pairs on 21 x 28 cm sheets of cardboard. Twelve pairs were masculine-feminine pairs, 12 pairs contained gender-typed toys (half masculine, half feminine) matched with gender role neutral toys, and 12 pairs contained two same-gender typed toys (half masculine and half feminine). Masculine and feminine toys appeared equally on the right and left sides of pairings. Children were instructed to indicate as quickly as possible which one toy in each pair they most preferred. Response latencies (in hundredths of seconds) were timed by the interviewer using a digital stopwatch and formed the major variables o f interest on this measure. The schematic processing measure allows inference into children's use of gender as a category to organize and classify information. Two separate scores are derived from this measure. The first score, termed the Schema Facilitative score, was based on children's response latencies to toy pairs consisting of masculine and feminine toys (12 pairs). It was presumed that invocation of the gender schema would facilitate a choice between a

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments

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masculine-feminine pair and result in lowered response latencies for these pairs relative to other choices. The second score, termed the Schema Inhibitory score, was based on children's response latencies to toy pairs consisting of two same-sex or two other-sex items (6 pairs). In these cases, it was presumed the gender schema could offer no information about which toy in the pair was preferable. Hence invocation of the gender schema would serve to actually inhibit decision making for these toy pairs resulting in longer response latencies relative to other choices. In both cases, each child's mean response latency was subtracted from his/her response latencies to the relevant pairings and then divided by the standard deviation of the child's response latencies. Children's response latencies to pairings that included gender role neutral items (e.g., feminine vs. neutral) were used in the computation of the mean response latency and associated standard deviation, but did not enter into the two schematization scores. A more detailed description o f the derivation of the two gender schematization scores appears elsewhere (Carter & Levy, 1988). Four criteria variables resulted from the two interview sessions with each child: (a) gender role knowledge, (b) gender role flexibility, (c) Schema facilitative score, and (d) Schema inhibitory score. The means and standard deviations of these scores for boys and girls are presented in Table I. Parental Reports. Each parent individually completed the first part of a questionnaire containing questions pertaining to (a) the number of hours

Table I. Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Predictor and Criterion Variables Variable

B o y s ( n = 30)

G i r l s ( n = 30)

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

8.31 0.20 0.44 18.55 17.27 0.45 1.73 1.09

45.53 1.74 1.76 29.86 44.87 1.30 1.27 6.71

7.34 0.45 0.25 14.15 22.04 0.36 0.87 0.58

0.23 1.18 32.35 104.65

2.45 - 3.32 136.67 106.67

0.72 0.60 46.04 62.21

Predictor variables Age (in months) 46.13 Preferred toy a 1.63 Preferred television b 1.46 Father-child interaction 35.07 Mother-child interaction 42.60 Mother's work status c 1.57 No. siblings 1.40 Parent's schooling (in years) 6.64 Criterion variables Inhibitory score 2.51 Facilitative score - 3.11 Knowledge 121.33 Flexibility 132.47

"1 = Masculine toys, 2 = feminine toys. ~1 = Educational television, 2 = entertainment television. el = Mother working full time outside of the home, 2 = mother home worker or not working full time outside of the home.

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they individually interacted with the target child on average per week, (b) their years of schooling, (c) their work status, and (d) the number, sexes and birth dates o f all family members. Parents jointly completed the second part of the questionnaire containing questions regarding the target child's: (a) favorite toy, and (b) most preferred television show. Seven scores were obtained f r o m the self-report questionnaire. Three scores concerned each parent: (a) the average amount of time each parent spent interacting with their child individually per week, (b) parents' jobs, and (c) parents' amount of education. Four scores concerned the target child: the child's (a) number of siblings, (b) birthday (i.e., age), (c) favorite toy, and (d) favorite television s h o w The means and standard deviations of these scores, for boys and girls, are presented in Table I. Mother's reported work status was classified as being either inside or outside the home (Hollingshead, 1975; U.S. Census Bureau, 1980). 4 Children's favorite toys were classified as gender-role consistent, inconsistent or neutral using nol as f r o m previous research (Edelbrock & Sugawara, 1978; Eisenberg-berg, Boothby, & Matson, 1979; Signorella & Liben, 1985; Zucker, 1977). Finally, children's favorite television programs were classified as either educational (e.g., Sesame Street) or entertainment (e.g., He-Man; Gitlin, 1987; Schultz, 1983; Smith, 1983; Woolery, 1983). Questionnaires were coded by one rater, whose performance was corroborated by a second rater. A third rater randomly coded 35 (58°70) of the questionnaires. Interrater agreement ranged from 93°70 to 100070. All disagreements were resolved by discussion. Raters were naive to the hypotheses of the study.

Procedure Each child participated in two interviews at their preschool held within one week of each other. Interviewers were two adult males and two adult females, each of whom interviewed approximately equal numbers of boys and girls. In the first interview children's gender role knowledge and flexibility were measured. In the second interview children's gender schematization was assessed.

4Previous research has tended to combine several variables relating to socioeconomicstatus to form a single index (e.g., Hollingshead, 1975). Multidimensional approaches to gender role development (e.g., Huston, 1985) suggest that to obtain a clearer picture of the relations between socioeconomicstatus and gender role development,researchers should examinethe influence of the individual componentsoften used to compute global indices of socioeconomicstatus on children's gender role acquisition.

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Environments

811

Approximately two weeks following their child's second interview, parents were sent the parental report questionnaires with a self-addressed, stamped return envelope.

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses Preliminary analyses consisted of a 2 (child's sex) x 2 (interviewer's sex) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) conducted on children's gender role knowledge, gender role flexibility, and two gender schematization scores. There were no significant main effects for interviewer's sex on any of the major dependent variables, nor were there any interactions between interviewer's sex and child's sex (all F's < 1, ns). Thus, interviewer's sex was eliminated as an independent variable from all subsequent analyses. Social Correlates of Boys" and Girls"Gender Role Development. Primary analyses consisted of a series of four nonhierarchical multiple regressions computed to examine relations among the eight predictor variables and boys' and girls' (a) gender role knowledge, (b) gender role flexibility, and (c and d) two gender schematization scores. If results indicated a significant contribution to the regression model by children's amount of interaction with their same-sex parent, a follow-up analysis was performed. 5 In the follow-up analyses, children's amount of interaction with their other-sex parent was included in the regression equation, whereas amount of interaction with the same-sex parent was not. These follow-up analyses were conducted to examine whether children's amount of interaction with only their same-sex parent, or their amount of interaction with both parents (i.e., a "parent effect") were significantly contributing to the regression model. Age of participant was entered as the first predictor in all the primary and follow-up analyses to partial out any variations due to age differences between children (Cliff, 1987). Simple correlations among predictor and dependent variables for boys and girls are presented in Table II. Correlates o f Boys" and Girls" Gender Role Knowledge. The nonhierarchical multiple regression predicting boys' gender role knowledge was significant, with boys' age in months, amounts of father-son and mother-son

5Theauthor would like to acknowledgeand thank the anonymousreviewerwho suggestedthis insightful procedure.

Levy

812

T a b l e II. Z e r o - O r d e r C o r r e l a t i o n s A m o n g P r e d i c t o r Variables: Boys (n = 30) 1. A g e

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

-

-.028 ns -

.203 ns .252 ns -

-.152 ns .032 ns .291 ns

-.326 ~ -.142 ns -.029 ns .679

.228 ns .093 ns .103 ns .260 ns .200 ns

-.052 ns -.460

-.005 ns -.014 ns -.425

2. P r e f e r r e d t o y 3. P r e f e r r e d T V 4. F-S i n t e r a c t i o n

_

s

5. M-S i n t e r a c t i o n -

6. M o t h e r ' s w o r k status -

-

g

-.074 ns -.186 ns .123 ns .186

e

.178 ns .348 d

.304 c

ns

7. No. siblings

-.090 -

ns

-

8. P a r e n t s ' s c h o o l i n g Z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g p r e d i c t o r a n d d e p e n d e n t variables: Boys (n = 30)

1. A g e 2. P r e f e r r e d t o y 3. P r e f e r r e d television

G e n d e r role knowledge

G e n d e r role flexibility

.582 a -.147 ns .407

.043 ns .415

d

4. F a t h e r - s o n i n t e r a c t i o n

-.208 ns

5. M o t h e r - s o n i n t e r a c t i o n

.026

6. M o t h e r ' s w o r k status

.136

d

7. No. siblings 8. P a r e n t s ' s c h o o l i n g

d

d

-.503

ns

-.185 ns

.519

.303

d

c

-.232

-.382

9. G e n d e r role k n o w l e d g e

-

10. G e n d e r role flexibility

.131 ns .236 ns

.397 ns .043 ns .135 ns -.412

-.523

ns

ns

11. S c h e m a facilitative score

a

.130 ns -.526

Schemafacilitative score

d

.131 ns .276 ns

d

.051 ns

.181 ns

-.185 ns

.236 ns .276 ns --

R e l a t i o n s A m o n g A s p e c t s o f Children's Social E n v i r o n m e n t s

813

Zero-order correlations among predictor variables: Girls (n = 30) 1

1. Age

--

2. Preferred toy

2

.306 c

--

3

.081 ns

-.313 c

3. Preferred TV -

4

5

-.437

-.406

6

7

.379

.442

8

e

d

d

e

-.396

-.174 ns -.020 ns .686

.297 ns .031 ns -.174 ns .204 ns

.277 ns -.279

d

.280 ns

4. F-D interaction -

t

5. M-D interaction 6. Mother's work status

-

-.640 f

.304 c

.450

e

e

-.221 ns -.081 ns .176 ns

.416 d

.174 ns -.283 ns -.625

7. No. siblings _

t

8. Parents' schooling Zero-order correlations among predictor and dependent variables: Girls (n = 30)

1. Age

Generoal role knowledge

Gender role flexibility

.358

.603

d

2. Preferred toy

.355 d

3. Preferred television

.189 ns

4. F - D interaction

-.146 ns

5. M - D interaction 6. Mother's work status 7. No. siblings 8. Parents' schooling

.213 ns .310

-.403 d

- .087 ns

.562 e

.107 ns -.405

.314 ns

-.071 ns

.378 d

.309 c

.385 d

.463

c

d

d

.092 as -.081

-.424

.181 ns -.319

ns

9. Gender role knowledge

e

Schema facilitate score

d

.353 d

c

-

.646 Y

ns

10. Gender role flexibility

-

--

11. Schema facilitative score

--

-

-.116 ns --

aA low Facilitative score represents a high degree of gender schematization. bA high Inhibitory score represents a high degree of gender schematization. Cp < .10. ap < .05. ep < .001. fp < .0001.

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interaction,

number

of siblings, and preferred

significantly to the model. Examination

television type contributing

of parameter

estimates and simple

correlations (see Tables II and III) indicates that consistent with predictions (a) o l d e r b o y s , ( b ) b o y s w h o r e p o r t e d l y i n t e r a c t e d m o r e w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s , (c) b o y s w i t h m a n y s i b l i n g s , a n d ( d ) b o y s f a v o r i n g e n t e r t a i n m e n t demonstrated ly i n t e r a c t e d knowledge,

greater gender role knowledge. with

their

father

less also

although this relation appeared

did not significantly contribute

However, displayed

television

boys who reportedgreater

gender

to the regression equation.

Table IIL Boys (n = 30) Criteria and predictor Gender role knowledge Model Age in months Father-son interaction Mother-son interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy Gender role flexibility Model Age in months Father-son interaction M o t h e r - s o n interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy Gender schematization (facilitative score) Model Age in months Father-son interaction M o t h e r - - s o n interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy

Adj. R 2a

role

s t a t i s t i c a l l y w e a k ( p < . 1 O) a n d

B Est.

df

F

p <

.891 --

2.59 -0.91 1.15 8.65 -4.21 -2.26 16.29 6.48

8, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

30.48 84.61 25.22 36.21 29.96 2.26 0.85 28.67 1.04

.0001 .0001 .000t .0001 .0001 ns ns .0001 ns

.523 -

3.13 -4.04 0.06 -25.92 20.67 -23.75 24.22 35.04

8, l, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

4.97 2.72 10.79 0.00 5.89 1.19 2.04 1.40 0.67

.002 ns .0001 ns .05 ns ns ns ns

.266 ---

-4.25 -6.51 - 1.23 -6.84 81.78 - 33.72 49.99 153.38

8, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

2.31 0.64 3.58 0.12 4.28 2.78 0.53 0.76 1.63

.05 ns .05 ns .05 ns ns ns ns

aAdjusted R 2 is a version of R 2 adjusted for degrees of freedom. It is typically a more conservative estimate of the variance accounted for by the regression model.

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815

Follow-up analyses revealed that boys' amount of interaction with their mother (i.e., other-sex parent) contributed significantly to the model IF(I, 22) = 6.11, p < .05], indicating that boys' amount of interaction with both parents and not just the same-sex parent contributed significantly to the model predicting boys' gender role knowledge. The nonhierarchical multiple regression predicting girls' gender role knowledge was significant, with girls' age in months, amounts of father-daughter and mother-daughter interaction, favorite type of toy contributing significantly to the equation. Examination of parameter estimates and simple correlations (Table II and IV) reveals that congruent with predictions (a) older girls, (b) girls who interacted more with their mothers, (c) girls preferring feminine toys, and (d) girls of mothers working outside the home demonstrated greater gender role knowledge. Results of follow-up analyses revealed that girls' amount of interaction with their father did not contribute significantly to the model IF(I, 22) < 1, ns], indicating that girls' amount of interaction with only their mother (i.e., same-sex parent) contributed significantly to the model predicting girls' gender role knowledge. Correlates of Boys" and Girls" Gender Role Flexibility. The nonhierarchical multiple regression predicting boys' gender role flexibility was significant, with amount of father-son interaction and boys' number of siblings contributing significantly to the model. Inspection of parameter estimates and simple correlations (Tables II and III) revealed that consistent with predictions boys with fewer siblings demonstrated greater gender role flexibility. In addition, boys who engaged in more father-son interaction exhibited less gender role flexibility. Results of follow-up analyses revealed that boys' amount of interaction with their mother contributed significantly to the model [F(1, 22) = 12.19, p < .01], indicating that boys' amount of interaction with both parents, and not just their same-sex father, contributed significantly to the model predicting boys' gender role flexibility. The nonhierarchical multiple regression predicting girls' gender role flexibility was significant, with girls' age in months, amounts of father-daughter and mother-daughter interaction, mother's work status, parents' amount of schooling, girls' number of siblings, and girls' preferred television type contributing significantly to the equation. Parameter estimates and simple correlations (Tables II and IV) indicate that consistent with expectations (a) older girls, (b) girls with mothers working outside the home, (c) girls preferring educational television, and (d) girls with fewer siblings demonstrated greater gender role flexibility. Also girls preferring feminine toys exhibited less gender role flexibility.

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Levy Table IV. Girls (n = 30) Criteria and predictor Adj. R 2~ Gender role knowledge Model .487 Age in months Mother-daughter interaction -Father-daughter interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy Gender role flexibility Model .829 Age in months Mother-daughter interaction Father-daughter interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy Gender schematization (inhibitory score) Model .667 Age in months Mother-daughter interaction Father-daughter interaction Number of siblings Mother's work status Parents' schooling Preferred television Preferred toy -

B Est.

df

F

p <

4.21

8, 21 1, 21

4.44 7.50

.003 .01

21 21 21 21 21 21 21

19.13 9.26 0.03 2.75 1.60 3.64 4.62

.001 .01 ns .01 ns .10 .05

8, 21 l, 21

18.68 17.21

.0001 .0001

1, 1, 1, 1, 1, I, 1,

21 21 21 21 21 21 21

43.81 63.51 9.05 3.86 5.06 9.34 2.36

.0001 .0001 .01 .05 .05 .01 ns

8, 21 1, 21

8.27 0.26

.0001 ns

1.60 2.28 0.17 3.30 15.04 16.80 0.02

ns ns ns .05 .001 .0005 ns

2.18 -2.32 1.61 -18.85 25.59 30.24 17.55 4.87 -2.53 4.66 -21.15 17.11 34.82 -43.56 -9.59 -2.99 1.59 2.92 -9.61 52.21 -198.21 192.85 2.55

1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,

1, 1, 1, I, 1, 1, 1,

21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Results o f f o l l o w - u p analyses revealed t h a t girls' a m o u n t o f i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r (i.e., o t h e r - s e x p a r e n t ) c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e m o d e l [F(1, 22) = 7 . 2 3 , p < .01]. T h u s , s i m i l a r t o b o y s , g i r l s ' a m o u n t o f i n t e r a c t i o n with both parents contributed significantly to the model predicting their gender role flexibility. Correlates o f Boys" and Girls" Gender Schematization. T h e n o n h i e r a r chical multiple regression predicting boys' gender schematization (Schema facilitative score) was significant, with boys' number of siblings and amount of father-son interaction contributing significantly to the model. Parameter e s t i m a t e s a n d s i m p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s (see T a b l e s I I a n d I I I ) s h o w t h a t (a) b o y s with more father-son interaction, (b) boys with more mother-son interact i o n , a n d (c) b o y s w i t h m a n y s i b l i n g s e x h i b i t e d g r e a t e r g e n d e r s c h e m a t i z a t i o n . Results of follow-up analyses revealed that boys' amount of interaction with their mother did not contribute significantly to the model [F(1,

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments

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22) < 1, ns], indicating that boys' amount of interaction with only their samesex parent, and not both parents, contributed significantly to the model predicting boys' gender schematization (i.e., Schema facilitative score). The regression model predicting boys' gender schematization (Schema inhibitory scale) failed to reach statistical significance (F < 2, ns). The nonhierarchical multiple regression predicting girls' gender schematization (Schema inhibitory score) was significant with mother's work status, parents' amount of schooling, and girls' preferred television type contributing significantly to the model. Parameter estimates and simple correlations (see Tables II and IV) indicate that (a) girls who preferred entertainment television, (b) girls with more mother-daughter interaction, and (c) girls with more father-daughter interaction possessed greater gender schematization. Girls of parents with less formal education also showed greater gender schematization. Girls whose mothers were homemakers also displayed greater gender schematization. Follow-up analyses revealed that girls' amount of interaction with their father contributed significantly to the model [F(1, 22) = 11.90, p < .01], indicating that girls' amount of interaction with both parents contributed significantly to the model predicting girls' gender schematization (i.e., Schema inhibitory score). The regression model predicting girls' gender schematization (Schema facilitative score) failed to reach statistical significance (F < 1, ns).

DISCUSSION The present results provide mixed support for theory-based explications concerning relations among social and cognitive components of boys' and girls' gender role development (see Table V). Congruent with predictions based on psychoanalytical and cognitive social learning theories, boys' and girls' amount of interaction with both parents were significantly associated with several cognitive aspects of gender role development. Perhaps of greatest interest were observations that larger amounts of interaction with the same-sex parent was positively associated with greater gender schematization in boys and greater gender role knowledge in girls. These findings are compatible with contemporary research that has observed relations between young children's gender role development and their amount and quality of interaction with parents (e.g., Brenes et al., 1985; Fagot & Leinbach, 1987, 1988; Weinraub, Clemens, Sockloff, Ethridge, Gracely, & Meyers, 1984). These findings also parallel previous research suggesting relationships between facets of children's family environment and their gender role knowledge and flexibility (Huston, 1983). To the author's knowledge, the present study represents one of the few empirical examinations of the social correlates of gender schematization (viz.,

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818

Table g. Listings of Predicted Findings and Associated Results Results Predicted findings Boys Girls 1. Positive association among children's amount Supported Supported of parent-child interaction and their gender role knowledge

2. Positive association among children's amount of parent-child interaction and their gender

Supported

Supported

sehematization

3. Positive association among whether mother worked outside of home and children's gender role flexibility (especially in girls) 4. Positive association among children's gendertyped toy preferences and their gender role

Not supported Supported Not supported Supported

knowledge

5. Negative association among children's gendertyped toy preferences and their gender role

Not supported Not supported

flexibility

6. Positive association among children's age and their gender role knowledge 7. Positive association among children's age and their gender role flexibility 8. Positive association among children's preferences for educational television and their

Supported

Supported

Not supported Supported Not supported Supported

gender role flexibility

9. Positive association among children's preferences for entertainment television and their

Supported

Not supported

Supported

Not supported

gender role knowledge

10. Positive association among children's number of siblings and their gender role knowledge 11. Negative association among children's number of siblings and their gender role flexibility

Not supported Supported

Carter, 1987). However, given the novelty of these findings and the imprecise nature of the parent-child interaction index, speculations as to the meaning of these results must be made tentatively (see Spence, 1984 a and b, for discussions of the limitations of self-report data). Nevertheless, it appears reasonable to suggest that children's awareness of the distinction between objects and activities based on gender roles (i.e., gender schematization) may become more explicated with increased amounts of interaction with parents (e.g., Bussey, 1983; Eisenberg et al., 1989; Perry, 1989). Consistent with predictions founded on cognitive social learning theory and previous research, girls with mothers who worked outside the home displayed greater gender role flexibility. Further, although not specifically predicted, results indicated that girls with mothers who were homemakers demonstrated greater gender schematization. Interestingly, mother's work status did not predict either boys' gender role flexibility or gender schematization. These findings support assertions by Katz (1979, 1986) and Block (1979, 1981) that the factors involved in boys' and girls' early gender role de-

Relations Among Aspects of Children's Social Environments

819

velopment should be examined separately, and suggest that the impact of mothers working outside of the home may be greater on aspects of girls' rather than boys' gender role development. In accordance with predictions based on cognitive-developmental approaches, girls preferring feminine toys demonstrated greater gender role knowledge and less gender role flexibility. However, unlike girls, boys' toy preferences did not predict either their gender role knowledge or flexibility. It may be that boys demonstrate little variation in their toy preferences, always endorsing primarily masculine toys (e.g., Carter & Patterson, 1982). The small standard deviation associated with boys' toy preferences supports this notion. As predicted, results indicated that boys preferring entertainment television possessed greater gender role knowledge. Additionally, girls preferring educational television displayed greater gender role flexibility. These findings are congruent with literature emphasizing the roles of television on children's gender role development (e.g., Perloff, 1977; Sternglatz & Serbin, 1974). It is fascinating to note that the relations between the type of television children preferred and their gender role knowledge and flexibility differed for boys and girls. Perhaps commercial televisions' greater presentation of male characters exhibiting gender typed, masculine behaviors facilitates boys' acquisition of gender role knowledge more than girls' (e.g., Brooks-Gunn & Schempp-Matthews, 1979; Tedesco, 1974). In contrast, it appears that the explicit attempts of educational television to convey egalitarian gender role messages are being assimilated by girls but perhaps not boys. Further research contrasting the affects of educational vs. entertainment varieties of television on gender role acquisition is clearly needed. Finally, consistent with predictions, children with many siblings demonstrated greater gender role knowledge and less gender role flexibility, even with the effect of age statistically controlled. As with other social variables, the impact of this variable on facets of boys' and girls' gender role development differed. Specifically, having many siblings was associated with greater gender role knowledge in boys and with less gender role flexibility in both boys and girls. Perhaps children with many siblings participate in, or encourage, less gender-typed play when interacting with siblings, especially if some of those siblings are of the other sex (e.g., Lamb & Roopnarine, 1979). Additional examinations of the effects of siblings on boys' and girls' gender role development are certainly needed (Katz, 1986, 1987). A number of unanticipated findings also emerged. For instance, a high amount of parent-child interaction was related to less gender role flexibility in boys, but not in girls. These data imply that greater amounts of parent-son interaction may lead to greater gender role rigidity in boys. These results are consistent with prior research reporting ttlat parents often interact with

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boys in more traditional, gender role consistent ways and expect boys to behave in a more gender role consistent fashion (Brooks-Gunn & SchemppMatthews, 1979; Fagot, 1977, 1978; Langlois & Downs, 1980). In sum, the present study observed a wide range of relations among aspects of children's social environment and cognitive components of their gender role development. Not surprisingly, the message that emerges from the present findings is that gender role development is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon (cf., Huston, 1983, 1985). However, it appears that certain theoretical approaches help explain specific aspects of gender role development, and that these explanations vary for girls and boys. Future research might heed the advice of Katz (1986, 1987) and others (e.g., Block, 1981, 1983) by examining the impact of social variables on boys' and girls' gender role development separately and longitudinally. The present results should be taken with great prudence, however. The small number of boy and girl participants in relation to the number of predictor variables employed, the conceptual and statistical overlap among predictor variables, and the large number of significance tests conducted certainly constrain the degree to which the present results can be generalized and affirmed. Thus, even though the strength of association among several social and cognitive variables were encouragingly large, especially given the small sample examined, replication of these results is undeniably needed. Nevertheless, the present research suggests strong relations among cognitive and social variables influencing gender role development. Researchers should continue examining relations among these, and other, social and cognitive variables affecting gender role development. Such enterprises will result in more transactional models of early gender role development, where cognitive, social and cultural factors are viewed as influencing each other distinctly over development (e.g., Constantinople, 1979; Fagot, 1985; Huston, 1985; Katz, 1986; 1987).

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