This report describes, and affers theological and psychological reflections on, the experience o] ten people with a popular torm oj the leader. less group.

Report on a Leaderless Group: Winging It by Tape GROUP theory and method has I Farrived as a distinct species of the social science genus, then the "leaderless group" deserves christening as one fascinating variety. This report will describe and analyze one form of this particular subspecies, led by a taped voice and designed for ten sessions. A few goals pursued by the group-approach are therapeutic (intra-and interpersonal) progress, achieving peak experiences, providing feedback, testingout new roles, and changing organizations. This ambitious vision has fostered as well experimentation with a variety of forms: e.g., verbal groups, marathon groups, body-contact exercises, problemsolving situations, nude groups, and--leaderless groups. Like many recently noted developments in the field, however, the leaderless group, as an evaluated technique, possesses a longer history than generally realized. As early as 1949, Jack R. Gibb studied the effect of this distinct process. In seeking to develop leadership qualities in the participants, h e utilized data gathered from student groups at the University of Colorado, the National Training Laboratories, and industrial consultations. On the basis of this research, he writes: "Our many years of experience with

C. G E O R G E F I T Z G E R A L D

Chaplain Princeton Hospital Princeton, New Jersey 'leaderless' groups in various settings lead us to feel that maximum participative behavior is attained more readily in training groups without trainers than with trainers, m I like to think of myself as a part of the group scene, both as leader and as participant, and thus quite interested upon hearing of this recently packaged and marketed product. The materials were produced by a subsidiary of a national electronics firm and copyrighted in 1968. An area church, in considering new possibilities for adult education, purchased a set for three hundred doll.ars and made sets available to members o,f the congregation who expressed an interest. The response surpassed expectations; the first 1969 fall group gave a uniformly enthusiastic reaction, and during the: winter two or three con1. Gibb, Jack R., "Climate for Trust Formation," T-Group Theory & Laboratory Method, Leland P. Bradford, Jack R. Gibb, and Kenneth D. Benne (eds.), New York, Wiley, 1964, p. 298. 21

current groups shared the tapes. By spring, another church in the community had purchased a subsequent tape series designed specifically for use by couples. During a winter luncheon conversation, a colleague and I exchanged positive reports on the leader-by-tape groups and decided to involve ourselves and some friends as participants. Not only would this enable us to keep abreast o f the field, but we might even observe ourselves--as leaders of future groups-phased-out by a machine! The following sections will describe and analyze what happened when ten people set out on a group experience with a guide who taped his voice two years earlier.

Experiences of a Five-Couples Leaderless Group By late spring, ten of us--five couples --agreed to meet ten Sunday evenings for an hour-and-a-half, rotating each week to a different couple's home. All of the men were ordained and had been involved in various marathon, encounter, sensitivity, and T-groups. In addition, four couples had participated together in at least one group guided by a competent leader. Several overlapping relations existed within the group. In two situations, two .families socialized frequently; three men met while enrolled in seminary fifteen years earlier; another group of three belonged to the same denominational judicatory; a still different set of three received their clinical pastoral education at the same center--yet, when the group convened for the first time, no single couple knew more than three other couples.! This raises the question of whether such a close group might prove threatening or --depending upon one's desire to plunge 22

into significant psychic material--if such acquaintanceship might aid in clearing passing-the-time-of-day underbrush and establish the group on a working level. As will be indicated, both the positive and negative features of this background transpired. Session # 1 . On Sunday evening four couples drove (one came fifty miles) to the home of the fifth and, after arriving, experienced the customary firstsession introductions, nervous laughter, and in-quips: "Let me see if I have it right--it's Mary and John, not Mary and Joseph . . . . " We agreed beforehand that refreshments would be minimal, and those who desired to do so helped themselves to coffee or punch from the dining room table. We selected our seats, pleasantries subsided, and the square blue b o x - roughly, two size eight shoe boxes shoved together--sitting next to the tape recorder in the corner, became increasingly evident. The contents included a couple of expensively-published introductory manuals; ten tapes, each with its own box, title, and picture on the cover to indicate the enclosed exercise; some pencils and specially printed pads of paper. 2

2. As noted, this set is copyrighted (1968), although what this entails cannot be easily determined, since the essential material of each tape consists of prescribed exercises--"first impressions," "trust circle," "breaking in," "breaking out," "pooling," etc.--found in such publica. tions as: Malamud, Daniel I., and Solomon Machover, Toward Sell-UnderStanding, Springfield (Ill.), Charles C. Thomas, 1965; Miles, Matthew B., Learning to Work in Groups, New York, Teachers College, 1959; and Schutz, W., Joy, New York, Grove Press, 1967. Furthermore, tape recorders have been used for years to give instructions, lead seminars, etc. Ostensibly, then, the copyright refers to the designated order of PASTORALPSYCHOLOGY/DECEMBER1970

In keeping with the get-acquainted nature of this first session, the tape suggested activities to bring initial impressions to the surface as well as to enhance trust in one another. Each of us with some background in the field attempted to avoid the observer role and to demonstrate our involvement as participants. One member stated this intention directly. Obversely, jockeying for leadership began immediately: e.g., excessive talking, declarations of past experience, and altering one exercise to include a variation experienced in a ~ previous group. At the first opportunity to exercise an option, the group rejected complete allegiance to the tape; thus in response to the announced conclusion of the first exercise, the machine, following four or five loud promptings, was switched to "off"! As the sessions progressed this practice of ignoring the tape increasingly became a group issue. Frequently the allocation of insufficient time prevented all the members from participating in an exercise~let alone discussing what had happened. On other occasions, however, a few members would dismiss the instructions too quickly, with at least two exercises being explicitly rejected. This would then lead to some post hoc quest i o n i n g - a t the end of the hour or at the next meeting--of the practice, especially if the interaction had seemed somewhat superficial. The first group meeting exceeded the hour-and-a-half limit we had originally agreed to--setting ,a generally accepted pattern for all the subsequent sessions. During the following week I asked another member about the initial session the exercises. At any rate, the description of the sessions will not name the specific exercise involved, but instead will focus upon the general purpose of the session and what transpired in the group.

and he replied, "I was surprised we got off to such a fast start."

Session #2. At the previous session one member announced he would have to miss the second gathering, and serious family illness prevented a second member from attending. Overall, attendance held up well: everyone attended five sessions, a man and a woman missed once, and one man was absent twice. Following instructions, we paired off, with no one choosing his or her spouse, and engaged in activities designed to expand and deepen communication. The discussion period had barely commenced before one wife announced she had found the first meeting more threatening than anticipated, expressed several reservations to her husband after that meeting but had finally decided to continue. Two males accused a third, the only active pastor of the group, of being too "pastoral" (i.e., over-solicitous). Near the end of the evening one of the females stated she had reservations about continuing, questioning both how much trust was present in the group and the lack of a leader. Session #3. The instructions for this session entailed an exercise in which everyone involved himself with every other member--one at a time--for the purpose of clarifying interaction patterns. The implementation almost doubled the time allotted by the tape, extensive material emerged but, due to the late hour, it rem.ained in psychic limbo, undiscussed. The evening concluded with the host, an accomplished wine maker, producing several samples of his talents along with cheese and crackers. This obviously went beyond the originally agreed upon "minimal refreshments," and a unani23

mous acceptance greeted the transgression. This session also marked the appearance of critical remarks directed toward the tapes: "All the instructions could be put on one tape . . . . How could they charge $300 for something that probably amounted to $15 in materials and $75 in marketing costs? . . . Imagine, over 200% profit! . . . The exercises aren't even original; you can read about them in most of the literature . . . . I heard the authors were paid three million for these tapes . . ." (i.e., "Why weren't we smart enough to do this?").

bet called the others on their "flip attitude." Another agreed, and the group settled down and proceeded to work. At least three persons presented material of significance to them. One man expressed his fear of death, a relatively real threat arising from an uncertain physical condition; one woman shared her uneasiness over being perceived as a threat by other women; and a husband described the hectic early years of marriage, precipitated in part by the discovery that he married a more competent and confident woman than he originally realized.

Session #:4. In this session the group perfunctorily followed the exercise, focusing on an evaluation of progress to date, and promptly forgot it. Following a transitional silence, the discussion centered on interaction patterns in two of the marriages present. One husband had become increasingly conscious of how much he tended to protect his wife. The second couple struggled with one member's feelings of low self-esteem, the contrast between their present and past, and how mutual support could be more effectively given.

Session #6. Two members missed the sixth session, one due to 'an unexpected death of a friend and the other by having to attend a training laboratory he had enrolled in some time previously. The theme for the evening had to do with extricating oneself from habitual, but undesired, patterns of involvement and response. Every one performed the exercise in a half-hearted manner, a general feeling of disillusionment pervaded the atmosphere, and several members going on to the next tape (which had been planned the previous week). The absence of two members, however, pushed the balance in favor of postponing another tape. Momentum picked up when the one man who had been the most dominant member of the group became the focus of attention. A rather productive discussion ensued, revolving around such topics as his effusive support and subtle domination, how this affected his marriage, and his stated desire to be well liked. Once this topic seemed covered, one of the women related to the group that the discussion of death the previous week had touched upon something quite real for her. At the conclusion of the evening all

Session #5. Like the fourth, the fifth session was held with the entire group present. The exercise, recommending a device for getting personal material before the group, received at best a mixed response. Some uncertainty existed over whether in fact the shared material was very personal obviously, degrees of honesty varied--and responses ranged from facetious comments to serious attempts to grapple with the subjects presented. The overall atmosphere, however, tended toward levity. As involvement and interest waned, and after the group had rejected instructions to repeat the exercise, one mere24

PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY/DECEMBER 1970

agreed that four tapes would be played in the final two meetings, due to impending vacations, and allotted twice the time as for the previous sessions-reducing the total number of meetings from ten to eight.

Session #7 (tapes 7 and 8). Meeting for almost four hours, the group spent the entire evening carrying out the exercise instructions. The first had to do with a method for providing feedback, each person to every other; the second sought to pinpoint and enhance a person's assets. There was no time available for discussion and, after some wine (at the wine maker's again), the group adjourned. In the next session, one woman utilized the material presented to her here, stating that two of the remarks she had received had offended her. On the way home at least two coupIes agreed they had a hard time with the strength reenforcing exercise and wondered if any one had taken it seriously. An allusion made the following week revealed no one had. Session #8 (tapes 9 and 10). The final session began with a perceptible air of gaiety and good feeling, evidenced through such things as effusive greetings and frequent laughter. The recommended exercise aimed at expressing support to those members the group felt had been less active or involved. The members unanimously chose two women and one man. During the exercise with the ninth tape, it became evident that the group was operating on something of a double level. On the one ]~and, everyone responded to the recommended exercise. During the ensuing discussion, however, rather than giving support to the selected three, some members fastened more on the question of whether or not the group had really expressed its feelings

---especially the negative--to one another. By the end of the first tape and the succeeding coffee break, at least three or four members were emphasizing the same theme: viz., the group had not been very open in expressing their negative feelings. Factors cited in support of this position included: some supposedly experienced members were not sharing their true feelings; a good many negative feelings were being displaced upon the tapes, rather than stating them directly to one another; the tapes as a whole tended unrealistically to stress the positive; and the communication and acceptance of positive feelings were essentally worthless without negative feelings being expressed and worked through. In spite of the mounting feelings of uneasiness, or perhaps because of them, the group dutifully responded to the directed exercise---again, one in which each member came face to face with each of the others. The relatively superficial conversation following the exercise soon turned serious when one woman tearfully exclaimed that the comments of two others, a man and a woman, had hurt her deeply. This striking show of feelings, the first open expression of tears, of course precipitated an immediate and dual response: sympathy for the offended and an expectation of appropriate penance from the offenders. The accused man apologized profusely and the offended accepted the gesture. No such harmonious resolution could be reached with the two women-offended and offender. Some group members pressed the offender for more appropriate signs of apology and, after some time, others suggested that some were using the offended to express their feelings toward the offender. With this impasse the group ignored the final in25

struetions from the tape---a rerun of an earlier exercise for expressing trust-and disbanded. The feeling of being left hanging-in-the-air was underscored when the woman offender, coincidentally the hostess for the evening, went upstairs to her room, thereby absenting herself from saying goodnight to the departing former group members. Reflections on the Leaderless Group

This rather ideographic discussion of one leaderless group experience will be organized around four issues: the tapes themselves, the nature of the movement evidenced by this group, implications for a group-leader role, and the use of this resource in a local church. Reference has already been made to the overpriced, and less than original features of the tapes; yet given the nature of our consumer economy, when we frequently pay more for the package than the product, this criticism carries little weight. One mechanical difficulty was the relatively short time available for each exercise, which at least suggests that such a group should not number more than ten. Oftentimes an entire hour-anda-half would be taken up with the implementation of an exercise, with little or no time available for any subsequent discussion. As a general rule of group work, of course, the succeeding analysis should surpass the exercise itself in significance. The absence of a leader thus inhibits such reflective discussion, a fact which the tape-producers may have considered but were unable to resolve. Certainly the tapes possessed positive features. For one thing, in each session every member was involved to some degree; few group leaders, unless quite directive, can claim such a record. The tape-leader also tended to diffuse the authority problems encountered in the 26

usual group with leader. Obviously members, especially the men, vied for leadership, but the others responded to such attempts rather directly. On the whole, the interaction fastened more on peer relations. Finally, the tapes pointedly emphasized the positive, with negative examples being fairly superficial. Linked to this approach were "how-to" guidelines on eye contact and the need to speak up. This accentuate-the-positive may reflect the theoretical stance of the authors and/or their apprehension over how .a leaderless group would handle any display of strong negative feelings. Several indices of group movement may be cited. These include: dealing openly with some marital tension; examining patterns of interaction, such as one member protecting another; struggling with the interplay between personal and occupational identity; confronting a smothering "goodness" type; encouraging a person to move out of her shell; and examining how background characteristics have affected present patterns of interaction. The admission on the part of three people to feelings of not wanting to continue might also be considered another indication of group movement: i.e., the threat of moving too fast. The impact of an inordinate number of participants with considerable background in group experience cannot be easily assessed. Attention to here-and-now material~e.g., methods of seeking support, resistance in response to an action earlier in the evening, pairing to attack someone or to influence a group decis i o n - o c c u r r e d at an above average rate for such a group, ostensibly due to the expertise present. As a corollary to this, however, one might try to outdo the other in being involved as a fullfledged member, resulting in pressure PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY/DECEMBER 1970

for faster group movement than might otherwise have been the case. On the other side of the ledger, this background experience may occasionally have served as a resistance: e.g., "Let's ignore this exercise since it's obviously too simple for us." One question, still unanswered, concerns whether or not relations which couples had developed on a social and personal level have been irreparably damaged by the experience, particularly in the final session. Or, will the feelings brought forth find some resolution, resulting in a more significant relation between the couples? In the meantime, two women agreed on one statement: "I am never again going to be in a group with a couple I know well socially." In this connection, it should be emphasized that these tapes were never intended for use by a group of couples, nor was it recommended that two tapes be played in one evening as was done in the final two sessions. This raises a related question as to whether or not the presence of a spouse inhibited his or her partner. If this did happen, compensation may be found in the fac: that every couple discussed the meaning of the interaction between sessions. One feature of this leaderless group has been mentioned: viz., a general avoidance of authority problems. Certainly there were times when a leader would have proved an asset--whenever the group atmosphere (at least twice) tended toward superficiality, and to facilitate a discussion of reactions to some of the exercises. After the last session, two of us conferred and agreed that the most critical leadership-incident occurred in the final meeting. In retrospect, we shook our psychic heads, recognizing that so much had broken loose in the final

few minutes, and we kicked our psychic tails for being impotent to change the course of events. From an after-thefact perspective, the bind we felt has become more clearly identified. Theoretically we knew that a leader does not permit this sort of outburst of negative feeling in the final gathering or, if so, holds the group until some resolution can be achieved. Within the actual context, however, our positions on the interaction varied and any influence one of us might have exercised was offset by two or three other 'experts.' In short, we once more recognized the pertinence of Freud's observations on the critical function of leadership, published fifty years ago in Group Psy-

chology and the Analysis of the Ego. In many ways, an historic and natural relation exists between the church

and the contemporary group movement. The church started as a small group and, through the centuries, groups such as the monastic orders, Calvin's Consistoire, and Wesley's "bands" conveyed the faith. From the group experience side, a participant--religious or not--quite frequently will describe his involvement as a religious experience, surpassing in meaningfulness anything received in an established denomination. This last phenomenon has naturally encouraged churchmen to give this instrument serious consideration. Ostensibly each denomination possesses trained men to produce such tapes-individually or in an expensive package. Indeed, this may be another secular indictment against the church for ignoring an intrinsic ingredient in her heritage ("Bear one another's burdens," Ga/. 6:2; " . . . let every one speak the truth with his neighbor . . .do not let the sun go down on your anger," Eph. 4:25, 6). If, however, the church employs this instrument as a salvation27

producer--and evidence exists that the tions one could expect that some people old "confession of sins" practice has with little or no acquaintance with the been altered only nominally to some- group-movement would find this instruthing like "sharing our hang-ups"-- ment a helpful introduction to the field; then some serious theological questions emphasis falls on the positive and the emerge. minimally-aroused anxiety encourages One basic theological question, under- change in this direction. But what about scored by Bonhoeffer and essentially the exception? In the group reported characteristic of any religious fad, con- here, the presence of some group-excerns the matter of "cheap grace." perienced individuals tended to facilitate Theologically, man is evil and expresses a faster and deeper movement. Other his inhumanity toward his fellow man alternatives could be quite disruptive, if in almost infinite ways. Transposing this not destructive: e.g., a severely distruth to the group experience, deepen- turbed or pre-psychotic person, or a ing relations and reconciliation cannot group-bum (as in ski-bum, beach-bum, be achieved by merely piling on posi- etc.) who regularly joins a group to vent tive comments---no matter how profuse his hostility or to fulfill some other actor extensive. Such a relation will only ing-out impulse. To be sure, the insurvive by mutual pretense. Ordinarily, struction manual, for this reason, adby contrast, the deepest moments in a vises caution in selecting people or acgroup experience occur after the nega- cepting names on a sign-up list (the tive feelings have been expressed, ana- more common church mode) for these groups. Yet if experienced group leaders lyzed, and somewhat resolved. find their screening methods less than A second theological/psychological 100% effective, how will a relatively inissue surfaces in terms o~ the authority experienced clergyman feel, or be, conproblem. While it may be true that the fident with a few written guidelines? If average group spends a considerable amount of time resolving the issue of nothing else, some contingency plans-authority (indeed, this becomes the goal such as referral to an appropriate helpin W. R. Bion's approach), the resolution ing person--should accompany the use of this issue produces a tremendous spurt of these tapes. of growth--particularly in assuming Conclusion and exercising authority--in the individuals involved. Several indicators of the This report has attempted to describe, authority problem exist in relation to and offer reflections on, a popular form the church. They range from how a of the leaderless group. The composition pastor combines serving and leading of our group was unique by virtue of functions to his insistence on an appro- the men being ordained, some having priate salary/housing figure. This au- previous exposure in group experiences, thority problem, therefore, can hardly and each person attending with his be resolved by finding a way around--- spouse. To a degree, however, every whether through a God-is-dead theology group possesses its share of unique or a leaderless group. characteristics. This article began by comparing the One reservation on recommending these tapes f,or use in a local church group-experience field to genetic catearises from the deceptive simplicity of gories of genus and species. This analogy (Continued on page 60) implementation. In a majority of situa28

PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY/DECEMBER 1970

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REPORT ON A LEADERLESS GROUP

(Continued /rom page 28) might be extended by reference to the fate of certain once popular dogs--such as collies and cocker spaniels. They were overbred and consequently became temperamental, sick, and often worthless. In a comparable way, overbreeding endangers the group field; these experiences are equated with salvation, or a pastor attends a two or three week session and returns home to lead his own group. Indubitably a reaction will occur in the near future, if it has not already begun. One hopes, however, the wheat will not be thrown out with the chaff, since a proper and responsible understanding of group processes can serve the church and enhance its effectiveness. Speaking in a more secular vein, this set of tapes--like assembly-line military aircraft--probably passed into obsolescence on the day of its production. Group phrases--"hang-ups," "feedback," "trying out a role," "cop-out"--have been adopted by popular speech. But obsolescent material often finds a m a r k e t - not infrequently the church; and no doubt a new model will be unveiled soon.

60

MAN OF THE MONTH

(Continued from page 4) a breakthrough in both religious and medical research. His most recent work in Chicago with The Pastoral Counseling Center of the Federation of Churches during a sabbatical leave, as reported in the Fall, 1969 issue of Saint Paul's The Journal, seeks to overcome the disastrous cleavage between pastoral care and community action ministries. He sees and expresses faith and wholeness, health and therapy, family life and decision-making, caring and community change, as all part of and necessary to the mission of Christ's Church. Although Dr. Carrigan's work context has been within Methodism, his roots and rehtionships continue with the American Baptist Convention. His wife, Janet, and their family of two sons and one daughter, have nurtured, sustained, and enlightened him in ways that only a loving wife and idiosyncratic children can do. Because Bob asked me instead of one of his several "father figures" such as Robert Reeves, Gotthard Booth, Paul Mares, Earl Loomis, or Charles Stinnette to "present" him, I want to add a personal note. For the last decade we have roomed together at various meetings and conventions. Much of my lost sleep, personal renewal, and spiritual exuberance can be attributed directly to those long hours of mutual sharing and searching. Bob gives presence and substance to his relationships and his responsibilities. --JAMES B. ASHBROOK

Professor of Psychology and Theology The Combined Faculty o/ Colgate Rochester, Bexley Hall, and Crozer Rochester, New York PASTORALPSYCHOLOGY/DECEMBER1970