GeoJournal https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-017-9830-7
Socio-economic impacts of ecotourism attractions in Enugu state, Nigeria T. E. Amalu . O. O. Otop . E. I. Duluora . V. U. Omeje . S. K. Emeana
Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2017
Abstract The study examined the socio-economic impacts of ecotourism attractions in Enugu State with special interest to investigate the trending benefits, effects and challenges of ecotourism development in the State. Questionnaire survey and interview guided by participatory rural appraisal techniques were employed to elicit needed information. The findings of the study revealed that the ecotourism industry in the area attracted benefits such as; provision of jobs, business opportunities, improved family income, patronage of local products and improved transport system. Irrespective of these benefits, the study also revealed that there were accruing challenges such as; lack of trained labor power, lack of government interest, lack of private sector participation, poor administration of the ecotourism sites, inadequate security, lack of standard supermarkets and poor accommodation facilities. Based on these findings, the study recommended that all stakeholders of the
T. E. Amalu (&) O. O. Otop Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria e-mail:
[email protected] E. I. Duluora S. K. Emeana Department of Tourism, National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism (NIHOTOUR), Abuja, Nigeria V. U. Omeje Department of Geography, Ebonyi State College of Education , Ikwo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
tourism industry should participate actively in all stages of ecotourism development in the area and that tourism should be enrolled as one of the core subjects or course in the secondary schools, colleges and universities to improve the awareness of the local people and improve the labor power. Keywords Ecotourism Patronage Arrivals Benefits and challenges
Introduction Ecotourism attractions stands as one of the strongest pull-factor of a destination and are considered as key destination resource for adequate marketing and prompt development. They are often defined as flagship and iconic objects, which draw a relatively large number of visitors to their premises or to their region (Ajake and Amalu 2012a). Ecotourism in recent times has been confirmed to be a catalyst for sustainable economic and environmental development (Amalu et al. 2017; Ajake and Amalu 2012a; Leena et al. 2013; Grodach 2010), ecotourism has been praised as a ‘‘short-cut’’ to sustainable development (Loo and Davies 2006; Ma and Yeh 2010). It has also been hailed as one of the largest and fastest growing sectors of the global social economy. In the same vein, ecotourism has been identified as one of the leading sources of foreign
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exchange and job creation in most developed and developing countries of the world (Butler and Hinch 2007; Marzuki 2011). Generally, most countries engage in ecotourism because of its potential contribution to macro and micro economy, conservation of landscape resources and fostering international peace and co-operation between nations (Mohammadi et al. 2010; Mbabazi 2013; Hall 2014). In recent times, it has been observed that ecotourism products and facilities are important factors that attract tourists to destination areas, keep them, and encourage repeat visits (Miranda 2007; Ajake and Amalu 2012b). Consequently, it has been observed that ecotourism attractions located in rural areas in most cases create positive externalities for individual businesses and community benefits (Mbaiwa 2008; McKercher 2008). Meanwhile, ecotourism has received much attention in recent years especially within the developing countries with massive development and marketing of ecotourism attractions (Mustafa and Abu Tayeh 2011; Nzama 2008). Ecotourism can be described as the management and conservation of nature in a way that maintain a balance between the requirements of tourists’ and ecology with the needs of the local communities such as job opportunities, new skills, revenue generation and a better economic status for women (Odunsanwo 2009; Ogorelc 2009; Okech 2009). Nigeria has witnessed massive appraisal and growth in ecotourism development which have directly influenced its economy positively (Amalu 2013). Some of its major ecotourism attractions includes; the millennium park in Abuja, Kajuru castle in kaduna, Cross River national park, Afi mountain sanctuary, Obudu mountain resort in Cross River State, Yankari games reserve, Wikki warm spring, Idanre hills, Gashaka Gumti national park, Kamuka national park. The presence of these ecotourism attractions has created immeasurable impact in-terms of the aesthetic characteristic of the cities across the country, improved community revenues, improved family income, provision of employment and business opportunities (Ajake and Amalu 2012b; Ajake et al. 2016a; Enang et al. 2016). In recent times, Enugu state has been observed as one of the very prominent tourists’ destinations in Nigeria with rich ecotourism attractions across the
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state. These ecotourism attractions includes; Miliken hill, Nike lake, Iva Valley coal mines, Opi lake, Obinofia Ndiuno lakes and caves; Ngebe lakes, Attakwu lake, Obanukwu lake, Odoro lakes and caves; Iheneke lake, Odor-Ugwu cave, Ogba Nmuogubi cave, Ogba Gwoo Gwoo cave. Others are Ogba Ihenekweagu cave, Inyi Chine cave, Isu Awaa cave, Nyaba beach, Attakwu beach, Awgu hills, Nsukka hills, Udi hills, Udi wonder-stone site, Pine forest reserve, Eucalyptus reserve, Ezeagu tourist complex with lake, waterfall, warm-cool spring and panoramic landscapes; Awhum waterfall, Ngwo waterfall, Amagunze Akpawfu lake complex and Ngene Ani lake. Enugu State also has rich cultural attractions such as; masquerade festivals (‘‘Ibono’’ across Ezeagu local government area), traditional shrines (Ugwu Enechhi shrine, Isi Ujulu shrine, Ega-Aga shrine, Eka Ana shrine and Ugwu Owere shrine), dance troops (atinyelu Ogwu, Ijele, Ogene and Ada mma) (Amalu 2013; Okonkwo and Odum 2012). Several studies (Okonkwo and Odum 2012; Amalu 2013; Nwakonobi 2004; Anikwe 2012; Ajake et al. 2016b; Enang et al. 2016; Anidiobu 2013) have examined the economic and recreational potentials of the ecotourism industry in Nigeria. However, little or no study has been carried out to examine the positive and negative implications of ecotourism industry in Nigeria. It is in this regards that this paper seeks to identify the various ecotourism sites and examine the socio-economic benefits and challenges accruing from the ecotourism industry in Enugu state, Nigeria.
Review of related literature The term ‘‘Ecotourism’’ was first mentioned by Hector Ceballos-Lascurain in 1983 and has since attracted support as well as arguments from scholars like; (Beeton 2006; Yamamura 2004; Yang 2010; Zappino 2005; Ajake et al. 2016a, b; Amalu et al. 2017). The increasing awareness on environmental implication of economic activities in the world and the rising desire of rich tourists’ to visit nature-based environment have been identified as the main driving force behind the dramatic expansion of the ecotourism industry (Hawkins 1994; Scheyvens 2002; Ajake and Amalu 2012c). Consequently, the upsurge of dissatisfaction with unregulated mass tourism is also an important factors promoting the emergence of ecotourism (Blamey
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2001; Amalu and Ajake 2014; Zhao and Ritchie 2007; Zomeni et al. 2008). The concept ‘‘ecotourism’’ evolved overtime, it tends to be linked with the principles of sustainable development. The objectives of ecotourism that have been frequently addressed by the extensive ecotourism literature adhere to the principles of sustainable development (Amalu et al. 2015; Aniah et al. 2009). In discussing the concept of ecotourism, the benefits of ecotourism will be considered mainly from economic, environmental and socio-cultural perspectives, within which there are some overlaps. In other words, the impacts of ecotourism based on the above three dimensions are not mutually exclusive. These three aspects of ecotourism development which have been addressed in most ecotourism studies reflect three dimensions of sustainability within sustainable development of ecotourism destination areas (Amalu et al. 2012; Beeton 2006; Wall 2007; Weaver 2006). Looking from an economic perspective, ecotourism is believed to have potentials to contribute to local economic development through a substantive channel. More specifically, it can help to provide jobs for local people, as well as drive the development of related industries such as, the transportation and accommodation sectors (Lindberg 2000; Amalu and Ajake 2014). In addition, ecotourism can also facilitate the upgrading of local infrastructure through its economic earnings. Moreover, ecotourism development can stimulate production and consumption which in turn, drives the local economy (Amalu et al. 2017; Beeton 2006; Amalu and Ajake 2012). Gould (2004) specifies employment benefits by using the Uganda Community Tourism Association Program as a case of study; which he pointed out that ecotourism provided local people with variety of jobs, ranging from tour guiding, camp ground operators, hotel and restaurant owners; craft and transporters. Similarly, Lindberg et al. (2006) also emphasized in their study in Belize, that nearly 70% of new jobs are dependent on the ecotourism industry. Weinberg et al. (2012) also emphasized that in Costa Rica, ecotourism activities were initiated to diversify the economy and today, ecotourism has contributed immensely to the growing economy of the country with recorded 72% impact of the employment opportunities. Investigation by several scholars have revealed that when local people and residents receive sufficient benefits from any economic project, they tend to
become more willing and ready to get to any length to support or participate in the success and sustenance of such project (Amalu et al. 2015; Aniah et al. 2009; Enang et al. 2016). Consequently, the substantial economic income or revenues combined with local people’s active participation are sufficient to contribute to the sustainable development of any territory. This is the case in Belize, where ecotourism was found to play a significant role in creating economic benefits to local people. The accruing revenues, in turn, led to increases in local people’s support for conservation and ecotourism activities in general (Lindberg et al. 2006). Considering the positive environmental impacts of ecotourism activities, one of the outstanding advantages of ecotourism on the environment is that it has the ability to provide a direct financial incentive for the preservation of relatively undisturbed natural habitats that would otherwise be exposed to more exploitative and non-sustainable profitable activities’’ (Weaver 2006). Indeed, ecotourism industry can be considered as a profitable sector which can provide a healthy and sustainable alternative to the environmentally destructive industries (logging and mining), where the existence of positive relationships between local people and conservation becomes more desirable (Beeton 2006; Lindberg 2000; Takon and Amalu 2013). In addition, ecotourism is perceived as a promising tool to finance the establishment and maintenance of protected areas (Lindberg 2000). For example, in nature reserves in Western Sichuan, China, ecotourism is successfully utilized as a tool to protect the natural environment and this has resulted in vegetative area increase by 6.7 million hectares (Alexander and Whitehouse 2004). On the other hand, the introduction of ecotourism in traditional societies can sometimes be harmful and create problems (Beeton 2006). Rudkin and Hall revealed that in the case of ecotourism development in the Solomon Islands, ecotourism is seen as an inappropriate type of development, especially when traditional leaders or power brokers abuse their positions. It was also observed that lack of local consultation over developmental projects led to opposition and contradictory opinions about the appropriateness of such development due to its external control and authority (Rudkin and Hall 2014). Moreover, the problem in ecotourism development is also related to the question of who the ‘‘eco-tourists’’ actually are. Tourists, in general terms,
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are people who leave their usual place of residence for more than one night but \ 12 months to visit places for the purposes of pleasure, leisure and self-fulfillment (Ajake and Amalu 2012a). Ecotourism could bring together people of diverse nationalities, races, ethnicities, cultures, sexes, socio-economic statuses and lifestyles to understand each other (Takon et al. 2013). In ecotourism destinations, for instance, the visitors interact with the host community, which has different perceptions, value systems, labour divisions, family relationships, attitudes, behavioral patterns, ceremonies and creative expression (Ma and Yeh 2010). The greater the differences between visitors and host residents, the more socio-cultural impacts are likely to lead to cultural disruption and environmental degradation (Miranda 2007). This is the ironic situation about host-guest relations in ecotourism destinations. It is in this vein that one can conclude that ecotourism development have gone through a life cycle which have prompted the discovery and development of several ecotourism sites but it is sad to note that most of these attractive sites have declined in what they were supposed to be due to government and stakeholders abandonment.
Study area Enugu State is one of the States in the South Eastern part of Nigeria, the State shares borders with Abia State and Imo State to the South, Ebonyi State to the East, Benue State to the North-East, Kogi State to the North-West and Anambra State to the West. It has a total area of 7161 km (2765 sq.mi) and a density of 780/km2 (2000 sq.mi) (Fig. 1). The study area covers the three senatorial districts of Enugu State with four locations within the State namely; Ezeagu and Udi in the West, Nsukka in the North and Enugu East in the East. Enugu State is endowed with a lot of tourist resources, facilities and attractions. These attractions include features such as lakes, caves, hills, falls and springs, as well as manmade features like; cultural festivals, hotels, telecommunications and transport facilities, galleries and monumental or archaeological sites. Some of the existing cultural attractions in Enugu include the Mmanwu festival, traditional dance troupes, chieftaincy coronation ceremonies, Ozo title ceremonies, traditional marriage ceremonies and new yam festival
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(Iri-ji) (Enugu State Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2014).
Methodology The study adopted cross sectional research design since it involved the evaluation of ecotourism benefits and challenges across a geographic region made up of different group of people. Primary and secondary sources of data were used to obtain data for the study. The primary source involved the use of a questionnaire survey, interviews sessions guided by participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques and direct field observation while the secondary sources involved the use of textbooks, journals materials and annual reports. The population of the study involved household heads, visitors/tourists’ and managers of ecotourism attractions since they make up the determinants of ecotourism activities and other economic activities in the area. A total of six hundred and ninety-four (694) household heads were selected for the study representing 10% of the total households within the selected study locations. The study also employed the use of interview sessions guided by PRA techniques to verify some of the information from the questionnaire survey and to elicit information from managers of tourism auxiliary service providers within the study area. Visitors’ were also interviewed to help the study understand their judgment or level of satisfaction with the available ecotourism assets and attractions in the area. In a bid to ensure that the study actualizes its objectives, the study analyzed and examined if there are significant variation in the benefits and challenges accruing from ecotourism attractions across the study locations through stating and testing two hypotheses. Data collected were analyzed with descriptive statistics like mean, simple percentages and standard deviation while the stated hypotheses for the study were tested using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Demographic characteristics of the study respondents The study examined the demographic characteristics of the study population in order to understand the
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Fig. 1 Map of Enugu state showing the study area. Source GIS Department of the Enugu state ministry of lands (2017)
nature and type of people involved in the various tourism based and other economic activities in the study area. Information on Table 1 shows that a total of 368 male respondents representing 53% and 326 female representing 47% of the entire study population were sampled. It was realized from the PRA process that although the population of the sampled males were more than that of females, that the females were more involved in tourism based activities than their male counterparts as most of them were involved in the sales of drinks (drinking joint) and food (restaurant). This is a clear indication that both sex (male and female) are very important to the study. It was also observed that people within the age category of 31–40 have the highest number of respondents with 295 representing 43% of the overall sample size. This is followed by the age category of
41–50 with 193 respondents representing 28%, 51–60 with 96 respondents representing 14% and 20–30 with 69 respondents representing 10%. The least of the age category was 61 and above with 41 respondents representing 6%. The study also revealed that people within the age category of 31–40 years old had the highest number of 295 respondents representing 43% of the entire sample size. This is followed by people within the age category of 41–50 years with 193 respondents representing 28%, people within 51–60 years old with 96 respondents representing 14% and people within 18–30 years old with 69 respondents representing 10%. The least of the age category was 61 years and above with 41 respondents representing 6%. It was realized from the interview session that most of the older or elders were unable to participate fully in economic activities forcing them to
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GeoJournal Table 1 The demographic characteristics of respondents of the study. Source Researcher’s field survey, 2017 S/N
Variable(s)
Frequency
Percentage
Sex A
Male
368
53
B
Female
326
47
Total
694
100
Age (year) A
18–30
69
10
B
31–40
295
43
C
41–50
193
28
D
51–60
96
14
E
61 and above Total
41
6
694
100
Marital status A
Single
251
36
B
Married
417
60
C
Divorced Total
26 694
4 100 27
Occupation A
Farming
481
B
Hunting
129
7
C
Business
312
18
D
Palm wine tapping
104
6
E
Artisan
155
9
F
Restaurant
138
8
G
Public servant
255
15
H
Hotel jobs Total
181
10
1755
100
Education A
NFE
150
22
B
FSLC
222
32
C D
SSCE B.Sc.
214 90
31 13
E
Others
18
3
Total
694
100
retire from active service of their family’s welfare paving ways for their wife and children to be deeply and directly involved in the enhancement and provision of the family income. The table also shows that 417 respondents representing 60% of the entire study population were married while 251 respondents representing 36% were single and 26 respondents representing 4% of the study population were divorced or lost their marital partners.
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In a bid to understand the economic characteristics of the residents in the area, the study examined the type of occupation which was predominant among the people. Information on Table 1 also reveals that majority of the people in the area were farmers recording a total of 481 respondents representing 27% of the entire study population, closely followed by those involved in private businesses such as; wine, fruit, cosmetics, medicine shops, recording 312 respondents representing 18% and public servants with 255 respondents representing 15%. The least group were hunters and palm wine tappers recording 129 and 104 respondents representing 7 and 6% respectively. The study further discovered that there existed cultural attachment or belief to some occupations like wine tapping and hunting where it was regarded as a taboo for women to be involved in such. The study also observed that same could be said of some tourism based activities like sales of food and drinks which was perceived to be a job for females. This belief system highly affected the level of local people’s participation in the ecotourism activities within the area. Information on the educational status of the people revealed that 222 respondents were holders of First School Leaving Certificate (FSLC) representing 32%, followed by those with Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE) holders with 214 respondents representing 31%. Those who had no form of formal education (NFE) were 150 respondents representing 22% while the least category was observed to be those with other or higher educational qualification like; M.Sc. and Doctorate degree or other professional qualifications recording 18 respondents representing 3% of the entire study population. This clearly show that the people of the study area are deficient in educational attainment and this affects how much impact they can create in the tourism industry as most of them cannot take up available task in the industry that would have helped to improve their level of income and in turn improve their standard of living.
Benefits of ecotourism industry to the residents In a bid to assess the economic viability of tourism development to the state economy, the study examined the revenue from tourism based and non-tourism based activities within the state. Information on Table 2
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revealed that revenue from non-tourism based outfits (banks, motor parks, private companies, schools, markets and fuel station) is greater than that from tourism based outfits (hotels, restaurants, drinking spots, super-markets, airport). It further revealed that government revenue from private companies across the State attracted the highest amount of income with 41% of the overall revenue. This was closely followed by the banking industry with 24% of the total revenue within the period under investigation. The least recorded revenue was observed from drinking spots with 1% of the total revenue and followed by revenue from restaurants and super markets with 2% each. Information on Fig. 2 further revealed that 85% of the revenue realized by the state government within the period under investigation was recorded by ancillary tourism based outfits while tourism outfits recorded the remaining 15%. This clearly implies that tourism development needs a lot of attention and improvement to help it measure up with other sectors of the economy. The ecotourism industry is widely known for its numerous benefits to host community people and it
Tourism ouits 15%
Ancillary tourism based ouits 85%
Fig. 2 Differentials of generated revenue from tourism and ancillary tourism based outfits (2007–2016). Source Researcher’s field survey, 2017
brings or attracts a lot of corresponding benefits to destination areas. Table 3 revealed that the ecotourism industry has some benefits to the area. It was also revealed that the ecotourism attractions attracted benefits such as; provision of business opportunities,
Table 2 Government revenue from ecotourism attractions and non-ecotourism outfits in the state (2007–2016). Source Enugu State Board of Internal Revenue records, 2017 Sectors
2007 (N)
2008 (N)
2009 (N)
2010 (N)
2011 (N)
2012 (N)
2013 (N)
2014 (N)
2015 (N)
2016 (N)
Total (N)
(%)
Hotels
2.05
3.21
3.11
4.52
4.77
3.32
5.18
6.84
8.97
8.28
50.25
5
Restaurants
1.65
1.51
s1.72
2.77
1.83
1.99
2.82
1.69
2.89
3.61
22.48
2
Drinking spots
0.56
0.75
0.89
0.92
1.34
1.54
0.96
1.87
1.45
2.31
12.59
1
Super markets
1.02
1.76
1.98
2.43
2.12
1.89
1.78
2.1
2.43
2.98
20.49
2
Airport
2.3
3.21
3.76
3.7
4.19
4.42
4.52
5.5
6.23
7.2
45.03
4
Total
7.58
10.44
11.46
14.34
14.25
13.16
15.26
18
21.97
24.38
150.84
0
Banks Telecommunication
18.5 1.82
17.2 2.96
20.9 2.54
25.8 3.75
23.9 4.1
22.9 3.98
22.7 2.67
26.7 3.89
28.9 4.2
36.6 5.5
244.1 35.41
24 4
Private companies
25.8
26.9
30.6
37.66
38.9
42.54
44.7
50.67
56.77
60.82
415.36
41
6.4
6.67
7.89
8.6
9.2
10.89
11.2
80.54
8
Tourism based activities
Ancillary tourism based activities
Schools
5.67
5.89
8.13
Medical
2.09
3.04
3.56
3.18
3.68
4.41
4.49
5.52
5.9
6.6
42.47
4
Fueling stations
2.02
2.85
2.43
2.39
2.48
3.12
3.26
4.05
4.09
5.98
32.67
3
86.42
100.03
110.75 126.7
850.55
0
101.68
118.03
132.72 151.08
1001.39
0
Total
55.9
58.84
66.43
79.45
81.19
84.84
G. total
63.48
69.28
77.89
93.79
95.44
98
N Naira in Million
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GeoJournal Table 3 Benefits of tourism development in Enugu State. Source Researcher’s field survey, 2017 Variables
Ezeagu
(%)
Enugu East
(%)
Nsukka
(%)
Udi
(%)
Total
Agg.%
Rank
Provision of jobs
147
8
189
8
102
8
178
13
616
9
1
Infrastructural development
134
7
154
7
79
6
69
5
436
6
4
Provision of electricity Business opportunities
32 148
2 8
112 189
5 8
34 98
3 8
45 167
3 12
223 602
3 9
7 1
Construction of roads
87
5
121
5
48
4
34
2
290
4
6
Improved family income
159
9
187
8
99
8
167
12
612
9
1
Provision of accommodation facilities
100
6
165
7
54
4
42
3
361
5
5
Provision of portable water
43
2
18
1
32
3
24
2
117
2
8
Exposure to technological development
89
5
154
7
57
5
54
4
354
5
5
Commercialization of local culture
69
4
156
7
87
7
76
5
388
6
4
Improved security system
38
2
54
2
44
4
44
3
180
3
7
169
9
189
8
79
6
97
7
534
8
2
Provision of communication facilities
78
4
165
7
87
7
56
4
386
6
4
Improved health care facilities
36
2
51
2
45
4
41
3
173
3
7
Improved transportation facilities
Improved educational facilities
22
1
28
1
34
3
23
2
107
2
8
Patronage of local products
187
10
180
8
101
8
103
7
571
8
2
Improvement in building facilities
112
6
52
2
65
5
89
6
318
5
5
Improvement in local lifestyle
168
9
169
7
78
6
88
6
503
7
3
provision of jobs, improved transportation facilities and patronage of local products were topmost in the observed benefits ranking 1st and 2nd on the scale of ranking. Meanwhile, items such as; improved educational facilities, improved health care facilities, improved security system, provision of portable water and provision of electricity were recorded as the least beneficial to the people and the area ranking 6th and 7th on the scale of preference. This implies that although there were a lot of benefits accruing from ecotourism attractions in the area, there were also much to be put in place if the ecotourism attractions are to bring forth a more sustainable development within the area. The study also considered the level of benefits accruing from the ecotourism industry in the area and formulated hypothesis for testing using data on Table 3.
The result of the test of variation of benefits across the study location on Table 4 shows that the benefits accruing from the ecotourism attractions varies across the study locations with the significant F-ratio of (F = 5.633, P \ 0.05). This clearly shows that there is a significant variation in the benefits from ecotourism attractions across the study locations. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate hypothesis accepted. The implication of the result applaud that some study locations receive more benefits from the ecotourism activities than the others. Further investigation from the PRA interview revealed that the variation in benefits from tourism can be traced to the availability of some facilities in some of the ecotourism attractions making visitors more comfortable and willing to spend more time or revisit. This positively contributes to the willingness of tourists to spend more or get more involved in ancillary activities around the attractions.
Hypothesis one Challenges of ecotourism development in the area There is a significant variation in the benefits accruing from ecotourism attractions across the study locations.
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Since the study has proven that ecotourism has positive impacts on the people and economy of the
GeoJournal Table 4 Result of one way ANOVA for the benefits of ecotourism industry. Source Author’s analysis, 2017 Response
Sum of squares
Between groups
df
Mean square
F
Sig.
5.633
.002
41,197.889
3
13,732.630
Within groups
165,780.556
68
2437.949
Total
206,978.444
71
study area, it is pertinent to also examine if there are accompanying negative impacts of the ecotourism activities within the study area. As shown on Table 5, the study used the 5 point likert scale questionnaire to elicit information to actualize this objective. The respondent’s response which was ranked from 1 to 5 was summed up and the percentage of each response determined. It further revealed that items such as; Rejection of local language, Decay of family values, decay of local custom and increase in prices of commodities were observed to have the highest recorded effect of the ecotourism industry ranking of 1–4 on the opinion scale. Meanwhile, other items such as; breakdown of law and order, damage to natural landscape, increase in the prevalence of diseases and decline in the local means of communication were observed to record the least effect from ecotourism
ranking of 13–16 in the overall ranking of the observed effects of the ecotourism industry. The study also considered the effects of the ecotourism industry in the area and the state in general and formulated hypothesis for testing using data on Table 5.
Hypothesis two There is a significant variation in the effects of ecotourism development across the study locations. One way ANOVA was used to compare the mean of more than two sets of data as shown on Table 6. The result of the test of variation in the level of effects of the ecotourism attractions across the study locations varies significantly with F-ratio of (F = 10.110, P \ 0.05). This means that there is a significant
Table 5 Effects of Eco-tourism activities in Enugu State. Source Researcher’s field survey, 2017 Challenges
Ezeagu
Enugu East
Nsukka
Udi
Decay of local custom
178
138
102
163
581
3
68
38
36
56
198
13
Breakdown of law and order
Total
Ranking
Rejection of local language
168
189
101
158
616
1
Increase in prices of local commodities
156
185
78
154
573
4
Rejection on traditional religion
160
165
61
38
424
9
Reduction in the number of people involved in traditional occupation
150
186
80
165
581
3
59
35
26
56
176
15
Increase in health challenges Decay in family values
149
193
95
158
595
2
Increase in promiscuity
179
190
70
112
551
5
Damage of natural landscape
46
47
37
56
186
14
Increase in teenage pregnancies
68
78
67
65
278
11
Increase in crime rate
78
42
45
74
239
12
Damage to local means of communication Damage to local lifestyle
60 160
38 187
24 89
38 90
160 526
16 6
Increase in the generation of waste
120
189
99
99
507
8
Increase in gambling activities
111
110
45
89
355
10
Increase in late night activities
135
184
79
112
510
7
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GeoJournal Table 6 Result of the effect of ecotourism industry in the area. Source author’s analysis, 2017 Response Between groups
Sum of squares
df
Mean square
F
Sig.
10.110
.000
70,632.069
3
23,544.023
Within groups
260,834.897
112
2328.883
Total
331,466.966
115
third while inadequate security in the area was recorded as the least limiting factors of the ecotourism industry in the area, followed by the unavailability of standard supermarkets and accommodation facilities in the area. The interview sessions with stakeholders in the ecotourism industry in the area revealed that lack of trained labor-power in the industry is caused by the unavailability of ecotourism courses in the institutions within the study location. From the participatory research appraisal guided interview session as presented on Fig. 3, the study further revealed that there were some challenges faced by the ecotourism industry in the study area such as; lack of government interest, lack of private sector involvement or participation, lack accessible road network, lack of trained labor power, inadequate electricity supply. Others are poor accommodation facilities, poor administration of ecotourism sites and inadequate tourism support facilities were observed as the major challenges of the ecotourism industry in the area. In all of these, lack of government interest and
variation in the level of effects caused by the ecotourism industry across the study locations. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis accepted. The implication of this result means that the ecotourism industry affected the host people in terms of their cultural and traditional values to some large extent. Meanwhile there were some areas where the industry benefited the people and there were also some areas where its activities affected the people the more.
Limitations of ecotourism industry in the area Information on Table 7 shows that lack of trained labor-power within the ecotourism industry was ranked above other variables as the highest limiting factor of the ecotourism industry in the area. This was closely followed by the lack of government interest in promoting ecotourism activities in the area, poor administration of ecotourism sites was recorded as the
Table 7 Challenges of ecotourism development in the study area. Source Field survey, 2017 (Using telephone survey method) Item
Ezeagu
Enugu East
Nsukka
Udi
Total
Percentage
Lack or inadequate accommodation facilities
45
8
16
40
109
12
Unavailability of standard supermarkets
42
5
22
34
103
13
Lack of government interest
49
29
48
46
172
2
Lack of private sector participation
45
40
43
41
169
4
Lack of local people’s involvement
38
24
43
48
153
6
Lack of adequate health facilities
47
30
34
48
159
5
Inadequate security operatives
25
12
9
38
84
14
Inadequate financial facilities
47
17
21
46
131
10
Lack of accessible roads
40
13
43
39
135
9
Lack of electricity Poor administration of ecotourism sites
44 40
18 37
39 46
46 48
147 171
7 3
Lack of transport facilities
40
23
38
42
143
8
Lack of trained labor power
46
38
42
48
174
1
Lack of food and beverage centres
40
12
24
43
119
11
123
GeoJournal Poor Inadequate support accomodaon facilies facilies 6% 8% Inadequate electricity supply 5% Inadequate security 10% Poor administraon of sites 11%
Lack of labor power 12%
Lack of accesible road network 6%
Lack of government interest 22%
Lack of private investor parcipaon 20%
Fig. 3 Perceived challenges faced by the ecotourism industry Conclusion. Source Field survey, 2017
lack of private sector involvement and participation was with the highest perceived challenge with 22 and 20% of the support responses. Meanwhile, the least perceived challenges were inadequate electricity supply and inadequate tourism support facilities with 5 and 8% support responses respectively. This implies that with combined effort by government and the private investors, most of the challenges faced by the ecotourism industry would be controlled and eliminated. The study examined the socio-cultural implication of the ecotourism development in Enugu State viz a vis evaluating the challenges and benefits of the ecotourism attractions within the state. Although the study revealed that the host people were involved in ecotourism related activities, however, it was revealed that more of the people were involved in non-ecotourism activities than in ecotourism related activities. The study indicate that twenty seven percent (27%) of the people were involved in farming activities, eighteen percent (18%) were involved in private buying and selling business, fifteen percent (15%) were civil servants, ten percent (10%) were involved in hotel jobs while eight percent (8%) and six (6%) percent were involved in restaurant and transportation jobs respectively. The study further revealed that one thousand, three hundred and thirty-two (1332) persons were involved in non-ecotourism related activities while four hundred and twenty-three (432) people were involved in tourism related jobs showing a great disparity in the level of involvement in ecotourism and non-
ecotourism related socio-economic activities within the area. Meanwhile, the study also observed that the ecotourism industry in the area suffered a lot of challenges ranging from lack of trained labor power, lack of government and private sector interest and poor administration of the ecotourism sites as the highest rated challenges in the area. The study also observed that there were enormous benefits accruing from the industry ranging from the provision of job opportunities, creation of more business opportunities, improved family income, improved transport facilities and broad patronage of local products which have impacted positively on the economy of the host communities. It was also observed that the State Government had a share of these benefits as there was an observed steady increase in revenue from tourism related outfits due to the increasing number of ecotourism support facilities within the State. Based on the finding, the study made the following recommendations; •
•
•
•
•
That the Government of the State should renew their interest on improving the ecotourism attractions and treat the sector as one which has great economic and infrastructural assets for the State through ensuring more investment in the sector. Government should include ecotourism in the curriculum of schools and institutions within the study area to help the residents and local people acquire knowledge on managerial and processes of ecotourism development. Government should collaborate with other stakeholders in the ecotourism sector especially the private investors and host communities by providing enabling environment for investment and encouraging the people to participate in the developmental stages of the industry by providing basic amenities in the local communities across the State. Government and private investors should encourage the improvement of labor power for the industry through creating or improving awareness amongst the local people through the provision of training and educational facilities. The managers of the ecotourism attractions should encourage the participation of the local people through the provision of jobs and financial
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GeoJournal
•
•
•
facilities through loans to encourage local people’s involvement in ecotourism related enterprises. Government and managers of the ecotourism industry should advocate the support of the host communities through extending some part of the ecotourism proceeds towards the development of the host communities. Government should provide facilities such as; accessible roads, electricity, hotels, police stations and source of potable water to the local communities to encourage more ecotourism activities and tourists’ visits. Government should also make effort towards advertising, marketing and promoting the ecotourism assets and sites to other parts of the world.
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