School Mental Health (2009) 1:89–102 DOI 10.1007/s12310-009-9010-0
ORIGINAL PAPER
Supportive and Controlling Parental Involvement as Predictors of Children’s Academic Achievement: Relations to Children’s ADHD Symptoms and Parenting Stress Maria A. Rogers Æ Judith Wiener Æ Imola Marton Æ Rosemary Tannock
Published online: 2 May 2009 Ó Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009
Abstract This study investigated the role of parenting stress, the parental involvement style, and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in predicting academic achievement in 8- to 12-year-old children. Guided by the Family–School Relationships Model path analysis was used to compare the effects of a controlling versus supportive style of parental involvement in relation to children’s learning. Results revealed that high levels of parenting stress were associated with the use of more controlling strategies regarding children’s academics, whereas lower stress was associated with a more supportive style of involvement. Controlling parental involvement was associated with more parent-rated symptoms of ADHD and lower academic achievement in children, while supportive involvement was associated with fewer parent-rated ADHD symptoms and higher achievement. The relation between both styles of parental involvement and academic achievement was accounted for by children’s inattention, but not hyperactivity/impulsivity, in the home. These M. A. Rogers (&) Neurosciences and Mental Health Research Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Room 4273, Black Wing, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada e-mail:
[email protected] J. Wiener R. Tannock Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada I. Marton Department of Psychological Services, Toronto District School Board, Toronto, ON, Canada R. Tannock Neurosciences and Mental Health Research Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, 555 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
findings demonstrate the combined risk of parenting stress, controlling parental involvement, and children’s inattentive behaviors for poor achievement in children. Keywords Parental involvement Parenting stress Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Inattention Academic achievement
The parent–child relationship has been identified as a significant factor accounting for variation in children’s normal and abnormal development. Although often studied in relation to children’s psychological development, considerable research suggests that parents also play a critical role in the academic development of their children (HooverDempsey & Sandler, 1995). Parental involvement in children’s learning has been consistently linked to children’s school outcomes and research suggests that how parents are involved influences the effectiveness of their involvement (Fan & Chen, 2001; Pomerantz, Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). Darling and Steinberg (1993) proposed that the effects of parenting practices on children are determined largely by the style in which such practices are used. Specifically, two dimensions of parenting behaviors, support and control, have been identified as important influences on children’s academic success (Grolnick, 2003). Parental supportive involvement regarding academic issues enhances children’s academic achievement, whereas parental controlling interactions are associated with lower achievement (Pomerantz, Grolnick, & Price, 2005). Moreover, child characteristics influence whether parents engage in more supportive or more controlling involvement about school-related issues. Although some child characteristics have been examined in relation to these dimensions of
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parental involvement, previous studies have not investigated whether the associations between controlling and supportive parental involvement and children’s academic achievement may be influenced by the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Because ADHD symptoms are associated with severe underachievement (Loe & Feldman, 2007), as well as parenting problems (Johnston & Mash, 2001), investigating the role of ADHD in the parental involvement-achievement link may increase our understanding of the chronic underachievement seen in this population. This preliminary study sought to address this issue by testing two path models, supportive versus controlling involvement, based on the theoretical assumptions of The Family–School Relationships Model (Ryan & Adams, 1995).
Family–School Relationships Model The Family–School Relationships Model (FSRM: Fig. 1) is an ecological model that helps to organize within-family characteristics and processes that are relevant to children’s school outcomes (Ryan & Adams, 1995). This model may be envisioned as an ecological, three-dimensional universe of variable classes with Level 0 (child outcomes) at the core and successive levels extending outwards to the most distant class of variables, Level 6 (exogenous socio-cultural or biological variables). All family processes have an association with Level 0, but largely through the mediating role of Level 1 (children’s personal characteristics). It is assumed that for a condition or process in the family to affect a child’s achievement in school, it must be mediated through the individual characteristics of the child, as not all children will respond the same way to parental characteristics or interactions among family members. Proximal factors, such as parent–child interactions that relate specifically to school work, are hypothesized to have the strongest effects on school outcomes, while distal factors, such as family context variables, are hypothesized to have weaker effects on children’s school outcomes. The FSRM aims to be inclusive by including characteristics of parents and children, patterns of family relationships, and contextual circumstances within the family that might affect school outcomes. The model recognizes that influences will be strongest between adjacent levels of variables and that the influence between each level is bidirectional along the proximal-distal dimension (Ryan & Adams, 1995). Evidence from several path analytic studies suggests that the model is useful in organizing the many sets of within-family variables that are significantly related to academic outcomes. For example, this model has been used as a guiding theoretical framework in studies investigating family predictors of rule compliance and peer sociability in school children (Adams, Ryan,
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Ketsetzis, & Keating, 2000), associations between parenting, self-esteem and academic achievement (Midgett, Ryan, Adams, & Corville-Smith, 2002; Rogers, Theule, Ryan, Adams, & Keating, 2009), longitudinal examinations of family processes that relate to academic and social development (Adams & Ryan, 2000; Franceschini, 2004), and parental involvement, academic competence, and school achievement (Rogers et al., 2009). The FSRM was used in this study as a framework for the development of the hypothesized path models.
Supportive and Controlling Parental Involvement The FSRM suggests that parental involvement in children’s learning (Level 2) will have a strong effect on children’s personal characteristics and academic achievement. Supportive parental involvement for academic learning refers to parenting behaviors that lead children to experience a sense of initiative and confidence in relation to their learning. By involving themselves in a supportive and positive manner, parents demonstrate interest, attention, praise, and reinforcement related to several aspects of learning, which in turn lead to enhanced academic achievement and overall school adjustment (e.g., Callahan, Rademacher, & Hildreth, 1998; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995; Joussemet, Koestner, Lekes, & Landry, 2005; Martinez-Pons, 1996; Seigner, 1986). Supportive parental involvement influences children’s achievement by enhancing skill development and by improving children’s intrinsic motivation for learning (Pomerantz et al., 2007). In contrast, controlling parental involvement refers to the exertion of pressure by parents through the use of commands, punishment, or coercive interactions. Parental punishment, criticism, and intrusion in relation to children’s school-related issues, such as homework and grades, is predictive of lower academic performance (e.g., Niggli, Trautwein, Schnyder, Ludtke, & Neumann, 2007; Pomerantz & Eaton, 2001). The association of controlling and supportive parental involvement with children’s achievement is mediated by children’s personal characteristics or attributes, such as self-regulation (Martinez-Pons, 1996), motivational style (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Koutsoulis & Campbell, 2001), locus of control (Hong & Ho, 2005), academic competence (Rogers et al., 2009), and self-esteem (Eskilson, Wiley, Muehlbauer, & Dodder, 1986). Research has also highlighted the important role of familial-contextual variables in determining how parents interact with their children. For example, parents’ psychological distress in relation to life stressors has been associated with punitive and controlling parenting (McLoyd, Jayaratne, Ceballo, & Borquez, 1994; McLoyd & Wilson, 1991). The impact of this stress also spills over
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Exogenous SocialCultural/ Biological Variables
__Level 6__ Context of Family
Personal Characteristics Of Parents
Level 5
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General Family Relations
General Parent-Child Interactions
__Level 4
Level 3
School-Focused Parent-Child Interactions
____Level 2
Parent Characteristics and Family Processes
Child’s Personal Characteristics
Child Outcomes
__Level 1__
__Level 0__
Child Traits or Competencies
Child Behaviour or Accomplishments
Fig. 1 The family–school relationships model
into parents’ involvement in their children’s learning; when parents are stressed, they have less time and energy to be involved in their children’s learning (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005), display more negative affect in their involvement (Reay, 2000), and provide less intellectual stimulation to their children (Adamakos et al., 1986).
and to general family adversity (e.g., Biederman et al., 1995). Parents of children with ADHD also experience stress as it relates to their children’s schooling; they report feeling less welcome and supported by their children’s schools and teachers, and perceive less time and energy for involvement in their children’s academic lives compared to parents of children without ADHD (Rogers, Wiener, Marton, & Tannock, 2009).
Parenting Children with ADHD The parenting literature suggests that many parents of children with ADHD use negative parenting strategies, characterized by harsh, controlling disciplinary practices and low levels of emotional support and responsiveness (Johnston, Murray, Hinshaw, Pelham, & Hoza, 2002; Khamis, 2006; Woodward, Taylor, & Dowdney, 1998). Such parenting behavior typically involves low levels of scaffolding and difficulties tend to be especially pronounced under structured conditions (Winsler, 1998; Woodward et al., 1998). This negative parenting is associated with increased severity of inattention and hyperactivity in children (McLaughlin & Harrison, 2006), even in epidemiological studies of nondiagnosed children (Adams & Ryan, 2000), and with comorbid conduct problems (Johnston & Scoular, 2008). This relationship is bidirectional and, not surprisingly, parents of children with ADHD experience elevated levels of stress associated with the parenting role (e.g., Baker, 1994),
Academic Achievement and ADHD In a recent meta-analysis of studies examining academic achievement in children with ADHD, Frazier, Youngstrom, Glutting, and Watkins (2007) found that children with ADHD have much lower overall achievement relative to controls, across subject areas and regardless of the type of measurement or sample studied. Furthermore, ADHD symptoms increase the probability of future grade retention, special education placement, and low reading and math test scores, even among children whose scores are below the clinical threshold for a diagnosis of ADHD (Currie & Stabile, 2006). Higher than average rates of failure, grade retention, school drop-out, and college probation are typical of adolescents and young adults with ADHD (Barkley, Fischer, Smallish, & Fletcher, 2006; Fergusson & Horwood, 1995; Frazier et al., 2007;
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Mannuzza, Klein, & Moulton, 2002; Todd et al., 2002; Torgersen, Gjervan, & Rasmussen, 2006). Such academic difficulties are not limited to the school setting, as ADHD symptoms contribute to functional impairments in homework, including low engagement, poor productivity, avoidance, non-compliance, off-task behavior, problematic time management, and poor organization (Abikoff & Gittelman, 1985; Habboushe et al., 2001; Power, Werba, Watkins, Angelucci, & Eiraldi, 2006). Numerous investigations have attempted to determine why children with ADHD experience severe underachievement. Research has suggested that genetic factors may be responsible for diminished arousal in specific neural networks, which may lead to deficits in executive functioning (Barkley, 2006; Saudino & Plomin, 2007; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005). Research has also identified speech, language, and motor deficits that may be associated with the underachievement associated with ADHD (Carte, Nigg, & Hinshaw, 1996; Cohen et al. 2000; Westby & Cutler, 1994). Although conduct problems are frequently comorbid with ADHD, they have not been found to contribute unique variance in academic achievement above and beyond ADHD symptoms (Frick et al., 1991; Hinshaw, 1992). Inattention predicts poor academic outcomes more strongly than hyperactivity and/or impulsivity, both concurrently (Dally, 2006) and longitudinally (Rabiner & Coie, 2000). Although the symptoms of ADHD and their associated cognitive factors have been linked to underachievement in these children, considerable variance in achievement remains unaccounted in such investigations (DuPaul et al., 2004; Rapport, Scanlan, & Denney, 1999), suggesting the presence of additional variables that may explain the academic difficulties seen in this population.
Objectives of the Present Study Although supportive and controlling parental involvement has been associated with academic achievement in typically developing children, the influence of ADHD symptoms in this relationship has not been examined in the extant literature. This is an important area of investigation because symptoms of ADHD, particularly inattention, place children at risk for academic underachievement. Parents of children with ADHD have significant difficulties in the parenting realm and face many parenting-related stresses, suggesting that parental involvement in children’s learning may be problematic for these families. Moreover, current evidence-based treatments for ADHD appear not to have clear effects on children’s academic outcomes (Loe & Feldman, 2007; Raggi & Chronis, 2006). We may need to look to other avenues of intervention or modify existing
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parenting interventions to be more relevant and appropriate for encouraging academic achievement. Guided by the FSRM, this preliminary study tested two models of parental involvement (controlling and supportive involvement). First, it was hypothesized that higher levels of stress in the parenting role (Level 5 of the FSRM: Personal Characteristics of Parents) would predict more controlling parental involvement (Level 2 of the FSRM: School-Focused Parent–Child Interactions) and would indirectly lead to lower achievement (Level 0 of the FSRM: Children’s Outcomes) by exacerbating children’s inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity (Level 1 of the FSRM: Children’s Personal Characteristics). In the second model, it was expected that lower levels of stress in the parenting role (Level 5) would predict more supportive parental involvement (Level 2) which would indirectly improve achievement (Level 0) by inhibiting children’s inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity (Level 1). It is important to note that these parenting behaviors are not seen as causally related to the symptoms of ADHD; rather they may influence the severity of these symptoms and their role in academic achievement.
Method Participants Participants were parents of 103 children aged 8 to 12 years (74 male, 29 female, mean age 10.1 years). Children were excluded from participation if they had a full scale IQ score below 80 or a diagnosis of Tourette’s Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Psychotic Disorder, or Bipolar Disorder. The sample was comprised of 53 children diagnosed with ADHD and 50 children without a diagnosis of ADHD. Children with ADHD had a previous diagnosis of ADHD from a physician or psychologist and 49% (n = 26) were taking psychostimulant medication. ADHD participants had clinically significant T-scores of parent-rated inattention (CPRS Inattentive: Mean = 77.64, SD = 9.81) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (CPRS Hyperactive/Impulsive: Mean = 77.00, SD = 10.71). The nonADHD participants had non-significant T-scores on both inattention (CPRS Inattentive: Mean = 45.64, SD = 5.20) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (CPRS Hyperactive/Impulsive: Mean = 47.67, SD = 4.80) and no previous or current diagnosis of ADHD or other behavior disorders. Of the 103 parents who participated in this study, 91% (n = 94) were mothers and 9% (n = 9) were fathers. Results from independent samples t-tests showed that mothers and fathers did not differ on any of the exogenous variables in the proposed models; therefore, mothers and fathers were collapsed for all statistical analyses. All participating
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children and parents were proficient in speaking, reading, and writing English. Approximately 79% (n = 82) of the parents were married or in common-law relationships, 13% (n = 13) were divorced or separated, and 8% (n = 8) were single parents. Families of children with and without ADHD did not differ in terms of demographic variables (participating parent or child gender, parents’ marital status, languages spoken in the home, mothers’ or fathers’ employment status), except that families of children with ADHD were of lower socioeconomic status (as measured by years of formal education) compared to families of children without ADHD (t = 4.07, p \ .01). Measures Parenting Stress Index: Short Form (PSI/SF: Abidin, 1995) The PSI/SF was used as a measure of parenting-related stress. It is a 36-item self-report questionnaire for which parents rate their agreement with statements on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly agree’’ to ‘‘strongly disagree.’’ The PSI/SF consists of three subscales (parental distress, parent–child dysfunctional interaction, difficult child) and a total stress score. Because in this study we were interested specifically in stress related to the parenting role, the Parental Distress subscale score was used as an exogenous variable in this study. Using this subscale, as opposed to the Total Stress score, also reduces shared variance between the Difficult Child items in the total score and parents’ reports of ADHD symptoms. The PSI/SF has been used extensively in the child psychopathology literature, including studies examining families of children with ADHD (e.g., Goldstein et al., 2007). It has shown excellent psychometric properties and large-scale normative studies have found good test–retest reliability (.85) and internal consistency (.87) for the Parental Distress scale (Abidin, 1995). Family–School Questionnaire (FSQ: Midgett, 2000) The Academic Pressure subscale of the FSQ was used to assess controlling parental involvement. The FSQ is a parent self-report instrument that was designed to measure parents’ perceptions of their involvement in their children’s home-based learning. The FSQ has been assessed in three previous scale development studies, demonstrating a stable factor structure with strong psychometric properties (Midgett, 2000; Rogers, 2002, 2008). For each item, parents indicate how true the statement is on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree.’’ The FSQ Academic Pressure subscale (10 items, Cronbach’s alpha = .82) includes items such as ‘‘I punish my child when he/she does poorly at school,’’ ‘‘If my
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child’s grades are not good enough, I will restrict his/her free time,’’ ‘‘I think my child is lazy when it comes to his/ her school work.’’ Parent Involvement Project Questionnaire (PIPQ; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005) The Reinforcement subscale of the PIPQ was used to assess supportive parental involvement. The PIPQ is a 109-item Likert scale that assesses parents’ perceptions of their involvement in their children’s education. The Reinforcement subscale (12 items, Cronbach’s alpha = .93) assesses parents use of encouraging and reinforcing behaviors when interacting with their children regarding school-related issues. Sample items include: ‘‘I show my child that I like it when he/she wants to learn new things,’’ ‘‘I show my child that I like it when he/she sticks with a problem until he/she solves it,’’ ‘‘I show my child that I like it when he/she has a good attitude about his/her school work.’’ Across four studies, Hoover-Dempsey and colleagues empirically tested the PIPQ and assessed its constructs using extensive factor analytic methods. This research revealed that the PIPQ is a psychometrically sound measurement tool consisting of reliable and valid scales of parental involvement (Walker, Wilkins, Dallaire, Sandler, & Hoover-Dempsey, 2005). Conners’ Parent Rating Scale—Revised Long Form (CPRS: Conners, 1997) The CPRS was used to assess parents’ perceptions of their children’s ADHD symptoms in the home. The DSM-IV Hyperactive/Impulsive and the DSM-IV Inattentive subscales were used for the present study to measure the two primary characteristics used to describe ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention). The CPRS is a widely used measure of ADHD symptomology and has been shown to have good validity and reliability (Cronbach’s alphas = .79 and .96) (Conners, 1997). Woodcock–Johnson III Tests of Achievement (WJ-III; Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001) The WJ-III is a widely used individually administered norm-referenced achievement test that served as an outcome measure of academic achievement for this study. Because ADHD symptoms are associated with academic problems across all subject areas, a composite score was used for the present study, which consisted of the following WJ-III subtests: Letter-Word Identification, Passage Comprehension, Calculation, Applied Problems, Spelling, and Writing Samples. Psychometric research on the WJ-III has yielded good reliability (coefficients ranging from .65 to
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.88 for the subtests used in this study) and content, construct, and criterion validity are all well-supported (Woodcock et al., 2001). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV; Wechsler, 2003) and Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI; Wechsler, 1999) Full-scale IQ scores from both the WISC-IV and WASI were used for screening purposes in the present study (those with IQ below 80 were not included due to the confounding effect on academic achievement). Children with ADHD who were clinic-referred were administered the WISC-IV as part of a complete psychoeducational assessment. Children with ADHD who were communityreferred and children without ADHD were administered the WASI, an individually administered abbreviated measure of cognitive capacity. The WASI was administered so as to not compromise future psychological assessments using the WISC-IV. Research suggests high correlations between full-scale IQ scores on the WASI and WISC (Wechsler, 1999). The WISC-IV and the WASI are widely used measures of intelligence for children and research on the psychometric properties has found good reliability, test– retest stability, and concurrent and construct validity for these tests (Sattler, 2001; Wechsler, 2003). Procedure This research took place in Toronto, Canada, and was approved by the Research Ethics Boards of the University of Toronto, the Hospital for Sick Children (HSC), and the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH). Children were recruited through clinic-referrals (in the case of the ADHD participants) and through postings in the community (i.e., local elementary schools, newspapers, physicians’ offices, community centres). During an initial phone screening, parents provided demographic and medical information about their children and families. Parents whose children met screening criteria were scheduled for an assessment session. These assessments typically involved one session of about 4 h in which children were seen individually by a researcher for the completion of selfreport questionnaires and standardized tests. Researchers were senior doctoral students in child-clinical psychology with extensive training in psychological testing. While children were being tested, parents were given questionnaires to complete in the waiting room. Although only specific subscales of questionnaires were used and analyzed in this study (as described above), each questionnaire was administered in its entirety. As an incentive for participation, parents were provided with a written educational
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and social-emotional report outlining their children’s functioning on the standardized measures and tests.
Results Data Analytic Approach The two proposed models were tested with path analysis using structural equations derived from covariance matrices. This technique was chosen because of its capacity to simultaneously examine multiple hypothesized paths of direct and indirect influence and because it provides global indices of fit between the data and a proposed theoretical model (Fassinger, 1987; Holmbeck, 1997). This method of analysis also allows for the examination of the influence of variables while controlling the influence of other variables in a model when shared variance would be expected (i.e., children’s inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms). Sample size precluded the use of latent variables with multiple indicators; thus, subscale scores were used as single-item indicators. The sample size also reduced the number of variables that could be included in each model, necessitating the testing of two models rather than including both supportive and controlling parental involvement in one model. Nevertheless, this study satisfied the criterion of a minimum of 100 participants to effectively conduct path analysis with sufficient power (e.g., Hoyle, 1995; Loehlin, 1992). The hypothesized models were tested using the statistical software LISREL (Jo¨reskog & So¨rbom, 1993), using the maximum-likelihood method of parameter estimation. In presenting the path analytic findings, several indices of fit are reported. The most basic indicator is a chi-square reflecting the degree of discrepancy between the observed covariance matrix from the data and that predicted by the model. A non-significant chi-square implies that one cannot reject the null hypothesis that the tested model fits the data. Other fit indices provide additional information about the fit of the data and are reported as well: the root-meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA; good fit indicated by value less than .05), the comparative fit index (CFI; good fit indicated by value greater than .90), the nonnormed fit index (NNFI; good fit indicated by value greater than .90), and the goodness of fit index (GFI; good fit indicated by value greater than .90). Estimates of CFI, NNFI, and GFI have been shown to be robust with smaller sample sizes when maximum likelihood estimation is used (Hu & Bentler, 1995). Although ADHD is typically categorized for diagnostic purposes, it may be understood as a continuous trait, with the clinical population at the high end of the continuum and those with few symptoms at the low end of the continuum.
95
.49**
105.32 (8.70)
108.28 (13.48)
6. Child academic achievement (WJ-III composite standard score)
7. Child IQ (WISC-IV/WASI FS standard score)
* p \ .05; ** p \ .01
– -.32**
-.24* -.35** -.09 -.03
– .82**
-.41** -.29**
– .31** .23* – -.25* -.26** .28** .34** 61.01 (16.59) 62.51 (16.55) 4. Child inattention (CPRS DSM-IV inattention t-score) 5. Child hyperactivity/impulsivity (CPRS DSM-IV hyper/imp t-score)
–
-.05 2.60 (.81) 3. Controlling parental involvement (FSQ academic pressure subscale mean)
-.20*
– 26.47 (7.98)
5.46 (.55)
2 1 M (SD)
2. Supportive parental involvement (PIPQ reinforcement subscale mean)
Figure 2 shows the controlling parental involvement path model, including the hypothesized paths and their corresponding standardized beta values (significant paths are indicated with solid lines and insignificant paths with dashed lines). When the overall fit of the data to the proposed model was examined, allowing the errors of children’s inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms to correlate, the fit of this model to the data was very good. These findings suggest that the hypothesized paths based on the FSRM were supported with these data. The model shows that parenting-related stress predicted controlling parental involvement. Controlling parental involvement was associated with both higher levels of parent-reported inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in children. Inattention, but not hyperactivity/impulsivity, negatively predicted academic achievement. That is, when parents reported more parenting role distress, they engaged in
1. Parenting stress (PSI parental distress raw score)
Controlling Parental Involvement Model
.34**
3
Path Analysis
Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations for parent and child variables
Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations for all study variables are presented in Table 1. The correlations were consistent with existing studies in terms of direction and significance, with one exception. The correlation between supportive parental involvement (PIPQ Reinforcement Subscale) and children’s academic achievement (Woodcock–Johnson Composite Score) was lower than expected (r = .18, p = .07), although still in the hypothesized direction and approaching significance. The correlation between inattention and hyperactivity/ impulsivity (Conners’ Parent Rating Scale) was strong (r = .82, p B .01) in accordance with both clinical and theoretical research. This provided support for the modeling of error terms between these two variables in the path analyses.
.18
5 4
Preliminary Analyses
-.14
6
There is good evidence from epidemiological studies that supports the use of ADHD symptoms as a continuous variable (Lifford, Harold, & Thapar, 2008) and recent qualitative research suggests that symptom severity may be more predictive of family interaction difficulties than categorical or diagnostic differences (Tripp, Schaughency, Langlands, & Mouat, 2007). Furthermore, taking a dimensional approach allows for the preservation of more information and greater power and reliability in statistical analyses (Klein & Riso, 1993). In light of this evidence, the ADHD and non-ADHD samples were collapsed to examine inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity as continuous traits and to ensure sufficient variance in the data.
-.02
7
–
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Chil d Inattention
. 3 3 **
P a r e n ti ng S tr e s s
.3 4 **
Co ntrol li ng Pa r ent a l I n vo lve me nt
.7 4 * *
-.48* *
Chi ld Academi c Achievement
-.03(ns)
R2 = .20 .25 ** -.08(ns)
C h il d Hype ract ivit y/ Impulsivity
Fig. 2 Controlling parental involvement model (v2 = 7.42, df = 3, p = .06, RMSEA = .01, NNFI = .90, CFI = .97, GFI = .97)
Child Inattention
-.21**
-. 2 0 * *
Pa r e n t i n g S t r e s s
Sup port ive Parental Invo lve m ent
.77 **
- . 49 * *
Child Academic Achievement
.05 (ns)
R2 = .19 -. 2 5 * * -.09 (ns)
Child Hype ract i vit y/ Impulsivity
Fig. 3 Supportive parental involvement model (v2= 9.62, df = 3, p = .08, RMSEA = .15 (90% CI for RMSEA = (0.0, 0.23) NNFI = .81, CFI = .94, GFI = .96)
more controlling interactions around school-related issues with their children. This control was negatively associated with children’s academic achievement through its association with parent-reported inattention in the home. Together, these paths account for approximately 20% of the variance in children’s academic achievement.
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Supportive Parental Involvement Model Figure 3 shows the results from the supportive parental involvement path model. When the overall fit of the data to the proposed model was examined, allowing the errors of children’s inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms
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to correlate, the fit of this model to the data was acceptable. Most of the fit indices suggest adequate fit to the hypothesized model, except the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation which was .15 (good fit indicated by value less than .05; Byrne, 1998). However, when the RMSEA confidence intervals were examined, the approximated error for the model falls within acceptable limits. Kline (2005) states that this RMSEA outcome often occurs with small samples. The paths in the model suggest that when parents report less stress, they are more likely to be supportive in relation to their children’s schooling. This in turn is associated with reduced symptoms of ADHD as perceived by parents. Supportive parental involvement and lower inattention together have a positive effect on children’s academic achievement. Thus, the hypothesized paths based on the FSRM were supported and accounted for approximately 19% of the variance in children’s academic achievement.
Discussion Previous studies have demonstrated that ADHD symptoms in childhood are strongly associated with both parenting difficulties and academic underachievement. The current study, although preliminary, builds on this literature by demonstrating that parenting stress and the way parents are involved in their children’s academic lives may together be related to the severity of inattention, which is related to children’s academic achievement. When parents are stressed and use a harsh and punitive style of interacting with their children regarding academic issues, they are more likely to report increased inattention in their children, which is a risk factor for underachievement. On the other hand, parents who engage with their children in a more supportive manner around learning are more likely to have children who display less inattention and higher academic success. The relationship between parental involvement and achievement was not accounted for by children’s hyperactive and impulsive symptoms. By testing these two competing models (controlling and supportive parental involvement), potential risk and protective factors have been identified that may be relevant to clinicians working with children with symptoms of ADHD. Moreover, this study underscores the utility of modeling parent and child variables simultaneously when attempting to understand complex and multifaceted child outcomes, such as academic achievement. Broadly speaking, previous research has shown that parental involvement in relation to children’s academic achievement is mediated by parent-perceived characteristics of the child (Pomerantz et al., 2007). Our findings substantiate this pattern of relations when children’s
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ADHD symptoms are examined as the mediating variables. Moderate correlations were found between the two types of parental involvement and children’s academic achievement when examined alone. However, when examined together with ADHD symptoms and parental stress, the direct paths from parental involvement to achievement were not significant, implying that the role of parental involvement is accounted for by children’s inattention (over hyperactivity and impulsivity). These findings corroborate recent research that has identified inattention as a primary risk factor for underachievement (e.g., Rabiner & Coie, 2000). Although hyperactive and impulsive symptoms undoubtedly interfere with on-task academic behavior (Pfiffner & Barkley, 1998), the inability to attend may be a more salient factor in children’s learning, resulting in fewer opportunities to absorb new academic material, thus inhibiting achievement. This investigation revealed that parenting stress influences how parents behave in relation to their children’s learning. When parents experience more distress in their role as a parent, they are more likely to use controlling parenting strategies when dealing with their children’s school-related issues. This is consistent with empirical and theoretical literature suggesting that parenting behavior may be seen not only as a result of parental personality factors, but also by their experiences of their life contexts (Belsky, 1984). Parents who are distressed in the parenting role are more likely to be punitive, harsh, and rejecting in their behavior toward their children (Deater-Deckard, 2004) and parents of children with behavioral difficulties are more likely to experience parental stress (Deater-Deckard, 2004). This study extends these findings by showing that when parents are stressed in their role as a parent, they also use a more controlling parenting style when interacting with their children about academics. Given that families likely deal with school-related issues in the evenings, presumably after at least one parent has worked all day (and in the case of children with ADHD, children’s stimulant medication may no longer be effective), parents’ stress may be exacerbated, thereby further increasing the risk of controlling behaviors regarding children’s school work. Furthermore, when parents are stressed in relation to parenting, they may feel a low sense of competence in their abilities to help their children academically. Indeed, being attuned to children’s learning needs requires a certain level of emotional resources on a daily basis; something that may be compromised when parents experience high levels of stress and when children exhibit ADHD behaviors. Our findings indicate that controlling parental involvement is associated with increased reports of children’s hyperactivity and impulsivity in the home, whereas supportive parental involvement is associated with fewer of these behaviors. This finding is consistent with previous
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research that suggests negative parenting strategies, such as authoritarian parental discipline, place children at risk of behavioral problems (Conger, Patterson, & Ge, 1995; Deater-Deckard & Scarr, 1996). This study, however, also shows that this association between controlling parenting and increased child behavior problems may also exist when parents use a controlling style in relation to their children’s learning. Rather than improving children’s ability to selfregulate, which is presumably the goal of controlling parental involvement, it is associated with increased inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive problems. This could be related to increased levels of child frustration in the face of controlling parental behavior, which is consistent with Ketsetzis, Ryan, and Adams’ (1998) finding that parental pressure to achieve was associated with lower frustration tolerance in children. This pattern is likely bidirectional in nature, perpetuating the cycle of stress and negative parent–child interaction in the home, especially around homework time. In comparison to studies examining parenting and children’s externalizing behaviors, few researchers to date have examined parenting practices in relation to childhood inattention. In fact, there is a paucity of research on environmental factors related to children’s inattention, especially in comparison to the neuropsychological and neurobiological studies in this area. Although these studies provide important information about the nature of inattention, the potential role of parenting should not be ignored because it may provide clues about factors in the relational environment of the child that may be altered to enhance children’s attention. Such investigations are especially important given the emerging literature linking inattention in childhood to a multitude of negative academic and psychological outcomes (WarnerRogers, Taylor, Taylor, & Sandberg, 2000), as well as the findings that most parents prefer to use non-pharmacologic approaches to treating their children’s ADHD symptoms (Johnston, Hommersen, & Siepp, 2008). Although the results from this study do not imply causal relationships and the associations are likely bidirectional, they do provide evidence that parenting stress and controlling parental involvement may be risk factors for inattention in children. More generally, these findings provide further evidence of problems in the relationship between children with high symptoms of ADHD and their parents. Negative parenting practices, including the use of control, have been linked to problems in attachment security (Grolnick, 2003), and attachment difficulties in children with ADHD have been identified by some researchers (Gerrard & Anastopoulos, 2005; Stiefel, 1997). Due to the severe academic difficulties experienced by children with ADHD, school issues likely represent a source of frequent and stressful interaction in these families, possibly further disrupting the parent–child relationship. Due in part to parents’ controlling
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involvement around school-related issues, children with ADHD and their parents may be at heightened risk for developing relational difficulties. Because oppositional and conduct problems were not examined in the models in this study, it is not possible to determine whether these relational difficulties regarding school work would be different in children with comorbid externalizing difficulties. Limitations and Future Research There are several limitations that should be considered before drawing conclusions from this preliminary study. We tested two hypothesized models based on an existing theoretical framework (the FSRM); however, it is important to note that this is just one of several possible ways of examining these variables. Johnston and Jassy (2007) proposed a transactional model which suggests, as we investigated in this study, that less than optimal parenting practices exacerbate children’s ADHD symptoms and their associated difficulties. This bidirectional model also proposes that ADHD symptoms create challenges for parenting. Indeed, both of these positions are well supported in the literature, suggesting that relationships between parenting and children’s ADHD symptoms, and the negative outcomes associated with this disorder, are cyclic in nature. For example, it would be plausible to hypothesize that children’s ADHD symptoms predict parental stress and parental involvement behaviors, and that academic achievement is influenced in this manner. Unfortunately, we are unable to ascertain the direction of effects from the small cross-sectional sample in this study, highlighting the need for larger, longitudinal investigations to test alternative models in the future. Design characteristics limit the conclusions from this study as well. To retain sufficient statistical power, our small sample size precluded the inclusion of additional paths or other potentially relevant variables in the models. Moreover, because we used single indicators, rather than latent variables, there is an increased likelihood of measurement error. In particular, the reliance on a singlesource method may have resulted in an overestimating of the magnitude of the correlations. Future research with larger samples and multiple indicators of parental involvement would be beneficial. In particular, research that examines the direct association between parenting stress and child inattention may provide interesting and valuable information. Moreover, larger studies would allow for an examination of both controlling and supportive involvement within the same model. Parents in this study reported on the parenting variables and the child symptoms of ADHD, suggesting that there may be increased error due to the shared source. Future studies should also seek to use multiple informants and methods of measuring ADHD symptoms to reduce this source of error. Additional studies
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should also examine the variables from this study in both clinic-referred and community samples of children, as well as in children with various comorbid conditions (i.e., learning disabilities, oppositional-defiant and conduct disorders), as parental and child characteristics in these subgroups of children may differ. Finally, future research on the mediating role of children’s ADHD symptoms should strive to test multifactorial models, based on existing theory and research, so that several salient variables can be examined simultaneously and indirect relationships assessed. Such statistical approaches allow for the differential examination of inattention from hyperactivity and impulsivity, which is essential since these two dimensions of ADHD appear to have different influences on children’s academic and family functioning. Clinical Implications These findings reveal important and new information about how parental characteristics interact with children’s ADHD symptoms to influence children’s academic achievement. From a clinical practice perspective, the findings highlight the importance of including parents in academic interventions for children with ADHD. Although pharmacologic and behavioral treatments for ADHD are associated with reductions in the core symptoms of ADHD and increased academic productivity, they are not associated with improvements in standardized academic test scores or ultimate educational attainment (DuPaul & Stoner, 2003). The current study (and many others using normative samples) suggests that parents are indeed facilitators of children’s academic achievement, yet parental variables have been targeted in few academic interventions for children with ADHD to date. In a recent review article of educational outcomes for children with ADHD, Loe and Feldman (2007) make several recommendations for improving the scholastic achievement of children with ADHD without mention of the role that parents may play in this process. Power, Karustis, and Habboushe (2001) have developed a promising homework program for children with ADHD which includes parents, teachers, and children, but this program has not been empirically evaluated to date. There is a clear need for research that strives to identify parental variables in the learning of children with ADHD, particularly in relation to children’s inattention, in hopes of designing informed academic interventions for these children. Likewise, school-related issues ought to be addressed in the context of traditional parent training programs for ADHD because they are a likely source of parent–child interaction difficulties. Acknowledgment The authors gratefully acknowledge the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for funding
99 this project, as well as Daniella Biondic and Amy Hsu for their assistance.
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