J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 DOI 10.1007/s11457-015-9149-9 ORIGINAL PAPER
The Astrolabe Project F. Castro1 • N. Budsberg1 • J. Jobling1 • A. Passen1
Published online: 20 November 2015 Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract Marine astrolabes were a simplification of the existing Islamic calculating devices and were used during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to measure the height of the sun at noon on sailing ships. With this value and the proper tables, sea captains could calculate the latitude and estimate the position of their ships during the long oceanic voyages that characterized the first age of globalization. This paper presents an inventory of all marine astrolabes known to exist, and proposes a taxonomy and chronology of their styles, based on the available data. Keywords Astrolabe Early modern seafaring Maritime archaeology Navigation Shipwrecks 16th century
Introduction Without a way to measure latitude, it is difficult to imagine the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean, the discovery of the Americas and the maritime routes to India and South East Asia, and even the mapping of the globe. Simplifying the determination of latitude, astrolabes advanced the mapping of the known world and encouraged maritime exploration, a process intimately connected to the late renaissance cultural revolution, the rise of capitalism, the intercontinental expansion of slavery, and the development of trade into a global activity. They are intimately connected to the social fabric of European courts, and although, to our knowledge, all astrolabes made of wood have long disappeared, the existing brass specimens tell us a story of taste, knowledge, power, and social status. Originally developed in Roman Egypt, later adapted by Islamic scholars, and passed into the neighboring Iberian states, astrolabes are part of an intellectual revolution that
& F. Castro
[email protected] 1
Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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gave the world larger and sturdier ships and a sophisticated bureaucratic organization. The Portuguese and Spanish early modern states planned and implemented imperialist policies on a theater that encompassed a large portion of the known world. Astrolabes helped fifteenth and sixteenth century sailors find their way around the planet and allowed geographers and cosmographers to create the maps from which the Catholic, Protestant, and Islamic rulers planned their strategies and wars. Their form and style reflect the knowledge, skills, and taste of their makers and are a product of the cultural and economic environment within which they were cast. Simple and reliable, marine astrolabes are a result of a long history of complex celestial interpretations and a product of sophisticated calculations that allowed anybody to determine the height of the sun at noon on any given day at any given latitude. Astrolabes were used together with tables that gave the position of the sun on every day of the year at any latitude (Albuquerque 1994, 169–245). Oceanic navigation required a lot more than the mere calculation of the latitude, however, and sixteenth century pilots were schooled in a vast array of theoretical and practical issues and expected to know how to bring a vessel from Lisbon or Seville, in the Iberian Peninsula, to San Juan de Puerto Rico, Veracruz, Mexico, Cochin, India, Macao, China, Manila in the Philippines, or Nagasaki in Japan. Nobody knows when the first mariner’s astrolabe—probably made of wood—was used, nor who wrote the first tables with the declination of the sun which are much older than the first references to mariner’s astrolabes (Marques 1998, 193–195). The use of mariner’s astrolabes is documented in the late fifteenth century and referred to as a recent practice by Joa˜o de Barros in 1497, when Vasco da Gama went ashore at Santa Helena with a large wooden astrolabe and measured the height of the Sun. We know that da Gama also brought several smaller, brass astrolabes in his ships (Barros 1778, I-IV-II-280). Other instruments, such as the nocturnal or the quadrant, mainly used to measure the height of the Polar Star, preceded the use of the marine astrolabe (Reis 1997, 48). In the late seventeenth century mariner’s astrolabes were replaced by more accurate instruments, such as the cross-staff and the quadrant, the majority of which were probably melted as brass has always been expensive. Today astrolabes are rare and sought out by treasure hunters and auction houses because they can fetch high prices in collectors’ markets. Real astrolabes, along with replicas and fakes, have surfaced regularly since the 1950s when the development of sport diving made looting and treasure hunting underwater easy and cheap. Although, until the early 1990s there was an active inventory of mariner’s astrolabes at the British National Maritime Museum (NMM), in Greenwich, today it is difficult to estimate how many astrolabes are in existence. Looters, treasure hunters, auction houses, and collectors tend to be discrete about most of their activities. Several astrolabes remain in private collections and will probably never be available for study. Fakes also circulate, as the one authenticated and sold at Christie’s in 2013 (Sale 9540, Lot 67). Because few people had access to the original after which the Christie’s astrolabe was copied, it was considered genuine, even if the picture in the catalogue shows a crude and badly finished specimen. Furthermore, reliable sources informed us in 2008 that a Portuguese diver had two unpublished astrolabes in his own private collection, allegedly recovered from a Spanish shipwreck at Arrifana, and more recently another diver recovered an astrolabe in Matosinhos, Portugal. Another unpublished astrolabe is said to exist in private hands, recovered from the 1668 Santı´ssmo Sacramento shipwreck in Salvador, Brazil while another has allegedly been found in Oman, but is not available for study.
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An Inventory of Known Mariners’ Astrolabes A scholarly interest for mariners’ astrolabes probably started in Portugal with the publication, in 1917, of two articles on this subject, one describing a mariner’s astrolabe, and another describing three astrolabes existing in Portugal, dating to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Silva 1945a, b). In 1926 the same author published three new papers on astrolabes, the first describing a new astrolabe/nocturnal in Portuguese hands, a second describing a mariner’s astrolabe found in 1903 in Mexico (NMM 6) during dredging operations in the harbor of Vera Cruz, and a third paper describing an astrolabe existing in the Geographical Society in Lisbon (Silva 1946a, b, c). By the 1930s mariners’ astrolabes had gathered the interest of scholars and collectors all over Europe. In 1933 another Portuguese scholar published the finding of a mariner’s astrolabe in Japan, during dredging operations in 1928 at Nagasaki, which destroyed the site of the shipwreck of the Portuguese Indiaman Madre de Deus, lost in 1610 (Costa 1933). Few astrolabes were known then and fewer published until the development of sport diving in the 1950s. David Waters published both a paper, in 1957, mentioning the existence of ten astrolabes (Waters 1957), and in 1966, a small book inventorying 21 known astrolabes (Waters 1966). Some of these were recovered from shipwrecks, a trend that would continue in the ongoing years. In 1969 Marcel Destombes published two papers describing three mariners’ astrolabes (Destombes 1969a, b) and in the following decades astrolabes were highlighted in publications pertaining to particular shipwrecks or featured in auction catalogues, mainly in London or Amsterdam. In 1983 Alan Stimson presented a paper with 48 known astrolabes, and in 1988 he published his book, The Mariner’s Astrolabe, with the then 65 recorded specimens (Stimson 1988). The 1988 inventory is a comprehensive study and includes a well-illustrated catalogue of the known astrolabes containing, when possible, the nation of origin date of manufacture, diameter, thickness, weight, scales, marks, and location at the time of the publication. After that date new astrolabes appeared regularly in the media and in auction catalogues, and occasionally in scholarly publications (Vale 1998; Reis 2002). In 2005 Gustavo Garcia published 16 new astrolabes in a Masters of Arts thesis at Texas A&M University, raising the number of known astrolabes to 81 (Garcia 2005). Not long before this, an inventory was started in the J. Richard Steffy Ship Reconstruction Laboratory (ShipLAB). Almost three decades after Stimson’s seminal publication and one decade after Gustavo Garcia’s update, the ShipLAB inventory has 20 new astrolabes, raising the number to 101, plus three alidades found separately and has been shared and synchronized with Alan Stimson’s at the British National Maritime Museum.
An Astrolabe Typology As mentioned above, astrolabes reflect the taste of the makers and the cultural and economic environment within which they were produced. An analysis of their shape and characteristics has the potential to establish a reliable taxonomy and chronology, be useful in helping date or even identify a shipwreck site, and aid in studying the development of these nautical instruments. In Waters proposed a classification of the known astrolabes into three types and four subtypes (Table 1).
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208 Table 1 David Waters astrolabe typology (1966)
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Type
Sub-type
Description
I
a
Wheel type with base ballast
II
b
Wheel type with crown ballast
a
Semi-sphere with base ballast
b III
Table 2 Alan Stimson astrolabe typology (1983)
Type
Semi-sphere with crown ballast Wheel type without ballast
Sub-type
Description
I
a
Wheel type with base ballast
b
Wheel type with crown ballast
II
a
Semi-sphere with base ballast
0
Solid disk
b
Semi-sphere with crown ballast
III
Wheel type without ballast
IV
Planisphere for marine use
V
Concentric ring type
In Alan Stimson added another two types to Waters’ taxonomy to include some of the new astrolabes found in the meantime (Table 2). In his 1988 book Stimson noted that the scales on the astrolabes were sometimes marked on only one quadrant, sometimes on two, and sometimes on four, occupying the whole 360° of the circle. Moreover, some scales start on the horizon (0-90-0), and some start on the zenith (90-0-90) as is the case with most Portuguese astrolabes, which measured the complement of altitude, simplifying the consultation of the tables of declination. Additionally, some astrolabes had two scales marked, one starting on the horizon and another, parallel, starting on the zenith. Another characteristic observed by Stimson is that in dated astrolabes the diameter tends to diminish during the second half of the sixteenth century and stabilize around 18 or 19 cm during the seventeenth century. One last characteristic analyzed in Stimson’s book is the thickness of the astrolabe’s wheel, which can be constant or increase towards the bottom, giving the transversal section a wedge shape. Stimson’s typology did not include some features such as the shape of the posts and the throne (the upper portion of the astrolabe, where the suspension ring is attached) and we feel that compounding these features will lead to a finer and more detailed classification. Considering the new additions to the astrolabe inventory we have established new subcategories as shown in Table 3 and Figs. 1 and 2, which apply mainly to Waters’ and Stimson’s category I(a). In our study we analyzed a total of 101 astrolabes whose existence is known today (Fig. 3). This number includes the 65 specimens mentioned in Stimson’s work (1988) and the additional 38 that appeared in the last 27 years. Summaries are presented on Tables 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9.
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209
Table 3 ShipLAB astrolabe typology Type
Sub-type
Ballast shape
Post tops
0-Disk I-Wheel
NA
NA
NA
a-Base ballast
1-Triangular
1-Simple 2-Concave 3-Concave w/steps
2-Concave
1-Simple
3-Convex (simple)
1-Simple
4-Convex (concave lower post tops)
4-Mixed (1 and 3)
3-Concave w/steps
5-Convex (all post tops concave)
3-Concave w/steps
6-Complex
3-Concave w/steps
7-Ogee
1-Simple 5-Convex
8-Ogee w/molded posts
2-Concave 6-Ogee
II-Semi-sphere
b-Crown ballast
6-Complex
a–Base ballast
2-Semicircular
1-Simple 1-Simple
b-Crown ballast
3-Ogee
1-Simple
III-No ballast
NA
NA
4-Concave w/steps
IV-Planisphere
NA
NA
NA
V-ring
NA
NA
NA
Atypical
NA
NA
NA
Making Sense of Shapes and Styles We propose to develop a taxonomy of the list of astrolabes compiled at the ShipLAB, building based on the work of Waters, Stimson and Garcia. In order to analyze the entire collection and try to find trends and patterns, we expanded the features included in the typologies and added a few existing data points [where available]. The inventory is presented in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 according to the astrolabes’ characteristics. Tables 4 and 6 present the astrolabes’ Number, Name, Date Made or terminus post quem, Date Lost or terminus ante quem, Provenance, Situation, and Condition. Tables 5 and 7 include the astrolabes’: Type, Scale, Diameter, Top and Bottom thickness, Weight, Nationality, Ballast Shape, Post Top Shape, and Throne Shape. Our task was made difficult because the data available are truncated; sometimes the maker is not known, most times the year in which the astrolabe was made is not known, and sometimes basic dimensions are not known. To make matters worse, astrolabes have a considerable market price and are sought off by treasure hunters and collectors, two groups of people that have sometimes been know to not always be completely honest or cooperative. (Watson 1997, 2006). Some of the astrolabes in our list are in private hands, some have been sold at auction and are unprovenanced, making it difficult to use the year of loss—a mere terminus ante quem data point to estimate the date of their making—and in some cases we suspect from the pictures available there are repairs and fabricated parts, as well as misinformation regarding the places and dates where they were found.
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Fig. 1 Astrolabe components (Filipe Castro)
Our first step was to divide the existing collection into Waters’ and Stimson’s primary categories. The first category, ‘‘0—Solid Disk,’’ encompasses one astrolabe, considered by Stimson as probably dating to the late fifteenth or early sixteenth century (NMM 47). A second specimen has been recently found but is unavailable for study. Figure 4—Type 0 astrolabe Las Palmas, housed in the Museo Casa de Colo´n, in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Gran Canaria, probably dates to the early sixteenth century and most probably of Spanish origin (Photo: Museo Casa de Colo´n, Las Palmas). The second category, ‘‘I—Wheel type with ballast,’’ is the largest, with 83 astrolabes. Waters and Stimson divided it into two groups according to the position of the ballast, ‘‘I(a)’’ including astrolabes with the ballast on the base, and ‘‘I(b)’’ including astrolabes with crown ballast. Category I(a) is the most common, encompassing 77 astrolabes, over three-quarters of all known specimens. Category I(a) was subdivided into eight groups, according to the shapes of the ballast and posts. Type I(a)1 seems to be the earliest and encompasses sparsely decorated astrolabes with a triangular ballast. Of the 16 existing specimens, those with dates suggest a period starting before 1533 and ending before 1585. All seem to be Iberian. Type I(a)2 encompasses astrolabes with a concave ballast and barely overlaps with Type I(a)1. Eleven specimens are known, dating from 1575 to before 1622. Types I(a)3, I(a)4, and I(a)5 seem to be predominantly Iberian, and refer to astrolabes with convex, semi-circular ballasts. Thirty-three specimens have been catalogued, around one-third of all known marine astrolabes. Of these 33 astrolabes, six were ascribed to Type I(a)3, dated before 1588 to 1608 and have simple posts with few decorations. A second group, I(a)4, dates to the period 1632 to 1656 and is more decorated, with the lower post tops joining the wheel with a stepped concave half-capitol. The next group,
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211
Fig. 2 Astrolabe taxonomy (Filipe Castro)
I(a)5, spans a period starting circa 1588 and ending before 1668 and these astrolabes have all post tops decorated. Types I(a)6, I(a)7, and I(a)8 encompass astrolabes more elaborately decorated, and span a period from 1555 to 1643. Some of these astrolabes are French, Dutch, and English. Type I(a)6 includes eight astrolabes, possibly Iberian and French, dating from 1555 to 1632, bearing base ballasts with complex shapes. All these astrolabes have post tops decorated. Type I(a)7 includes four astrolabes with different provenances, showing ogee-shaped base ballasts, and dating from before 1606 to 1643. The last group, I(a)8, is perhaps the most decorated, and none of the specimens has been dated or provenance.
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212
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Fig. 3 Known astrolabes (Nicholas Budsberg)
Only six astrolabes belong to the group I(b)—NMM 13, 14, 15, 37, 48 and 57—and they all seem to be Dutch. The third category, ‘‘II—Semi-Sphere,’’ comprises two specimens, one (NMM 5) with the ballast on the bottom, classified by Waters and Stimson as II(a) and dated 1600, and the
123
Dundee
Krabbe
Valencia
Kronborg
Vera Cruz
Manila
Champlain
Florence
Madre de Deos
St. Andrews
Skokloster I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Skokloster II
Palermo
1
13
Name
NMM no.
c. 1626
1626
1616
?
1608
1603
1602
?
1600
c. 1588
1582
1555
1540
Date made
NA
NA
NA
1610
NA
?
?
?
?
?
NA
NA
NA
Date lost
Possibly acquired by Swedish Field-marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel in the seventeenth century
Possibly acquired by Swedish Field-marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel in the seventeenth century
Possibly acquired for St. Andrews University in 1673
Recovered from the shipwreck of the Portuguese Indiaman Madre de Deos, lost in Nagasaki Bay
Belonged to Sir Robert Dudley (1573–1649) and remained in Florence
Found on the edge of Green Lake, Canada, in 1867
Dredged up around 1917 from the Manila harbor, Philippines
Dredged up in 1903 from the Vera Cruz harbor, Mexico
Acquired from an antiques dealer, by the Sofartsmuseet, Denmark, in 1918
Found on Valencia Island, Ireland, in 1845
Documented in private hands until 1962, when it was offered to the Fort Caroline National Memorial
Documented in private hands since 1688
Astronomical observatory at Palermo, Italy
Provenance
Table 4 History and situation of the astrolabes in the Alan Stimson NMM inventory (1988)
Good
Good
Skokloster Castle, Skokloster, Sweden
Skokloster Castle, Skokloster, Sweden
Good
Eroded
Tenri Library, Nara-ken, Japan
St. Andrews University, Fife, Scotland
Good
Good
Good
Good. Alidade and pin are modern
Good
Good
Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence, Italy
Historical Society, New York, N. Y
On loan in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C
Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, England
Sofartsmuseet, Kronborg, Denmark
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England
Very good Good
Fort Caroline National Memorial, Jacksonville, Florida
Good at the time of its disappearance
Condition
Dundee city Museum since 1950, Scotland
Disappeared during the second world war
Situation
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123
123
?
1563
Batavia I
Batavia II
Caudebec
Coimbra
Felix
Florence I
Florence II
Lyme Bay
Shiel
Arts et Me´tiers I
Coindreau
Girona I
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
?
1648
?
b. 1654
b. 1654
c. 1700
c. 1700
1632
?
?
c. 1626
Skokloster III
14
Date made
Name
NMM no.
Table 4 continued
1588
?
NA
?
?
NA
NA
NA
NA
?
1629
1629
NA
Date lost
Salvaged in 1968 from the Spanish shipwreck of the Girona at Lacada Point, Ireland
Dredged up in 1938 from the Bou-Regreg estuary, Rabat, Morocco
Part of the collection of the Conservatoire National des arts et Me´tiers, Paris, France
Found in 1925 at telegraph bay, Alderney, England
Found in 1967 in shallow water at Lyme Bay, Dorset, England
Probably made by Charles Whitwell for Sir Robert Dudley
Probably made by Charles Whitwell for Sir Robert Dudley
Unknown
Observatory of the University of Coimbra
Unknown
Recovered in 1964 from the shipwreck of the Dutch Indiaman Batavia, lost at western Australia
Recovered in 1968 from the shipwreck of the Dutch Indiaman Batavia, lost at western Australia
Possibly acquired by Swedish Field-marshal Carl Gustav Wrangel in the seventeenth century
Provenance
Eroded
Eroded
In a private collection, on loan in the Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia In a private collection, Australia
University of Coimbra
Ulster Museum, Belfast, Ireland
In a private collection, France
Conservatoire National des arts et Me´tiers, Paris, France
In a private collection, England
Peabody Museum, Salem, Massachusetts
Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence, Italy
Museo di Storia della Scienza, Florence, Italy
On loan in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C
Eroded
Good
Good
Eroded
Eroded
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good, before being destroyed in a fire
Good
Skokloster Castle, Skokloster, Sweden
Destroyed in the Second World War
Condition
Situation
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Padre Island I
Padre Island II
Padre Island III
Bermuda
Mewstone
Arts et Metiers II
Atocha I
Colombian
Batavia III
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Batavia IV
Girona II
27
37
Name
NMM no.
Table 4 continued
1628
?
?
?
c. 1600
c. 1600
c. 1550
154[5]
1550
1550
?
Date made
1629
1629
1702
1622
NA
?
?
1554
1554
1554
1588
Date lost
Recovered in 1975 during archaeological excavations at the Batavia shipwreck site, in Western Australia
Recovered in 1973 during archaeological excavations at the Batavia shipwreck site, in Western Australia
Said to have been salvaged in 1974 from a Spanish shipwreck believed to have sunk on the coast of Colombia in 1702
Possibly salvaged in 1973 from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha, off the Florida coast
Part of the collection of the conservatoire National des Arts et Me´tiers, Paris, France
Found in 1970 near the Great Mewstone rocks,
Salvaged from a late sixteenth century shipwreck site off Bermuda
Salvaged in 1967 from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Espiritu Santo, off the Texas coast
Salvaged in 1967 from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Espiritu Santo, off the Texas coast
Salvaged in 1967 from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Espiritu Santo, off the Texas coast
Salvaged in 1968 from the Spanish shipwreck of the Girona at Lacada Point, Ireland
Provenance
Eroded
Eroded
Corpus Christi Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas Corpus Christi Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas
Eroded
Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia
Good, but missing alidade and pin
Eroded
Time Museum, Rockford, Illinois
Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia
Good
Good
Eroded
In a private collection: Treasure Salvors Incorporated, Key West, Florida
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England Conservatoire National des Arts et Me´tiers, Paris, France
Eroded
Eroded
Corpus Christi Museum, Corpus Christi, Texas
In a private collection, Bermuda
Eroded and broken
Condition
Ulster Museum, Belfast, Ireland
Situation
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123
Name
Sacramento A
Sacramento B
Concepcion A
Concepcion B
Concepcion C
Banda I
Isle aux Morts
Santa Margarita
Mounts Bay
Las Palmas
Vergulde Draeck
NMM no.
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
Table 4 continued
123
?
1656
?
?
1622
?
1615
1641
1641
1641
1668
1668
Date lost
?
?
?
1628
1568
1632
?
16[1]9
?
?
Date made
Recovered in 1975 during archaeological excavations at the Vergulde Draeck shipwreck site, in Western Australia
Unknown
Recovered in 1982 near Mounts Bay, Cornwall, England
Salvaged in 1973 from the Spanish shipwreck Santa Margarita, off the Florida coast
Salvaged in 1981 from a possibly French shipwreck near the Isle aux Morts, Newfoundland, Canada
Salvaged in 1980 from the Dutch shipwreck Banda, in the Mauritius Island
Salvaged in 1979 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de la Concepcio´n, in the Dominican Republic
Salvaged in 1979 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de la Concepcio´n, in the Dominican Republic
Salvaged in 1979 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de la Concepcio´n, in the Dominican Republic
Recovered in 1977 during archaeological excavations at the Santı´ssimo Sacramento shipwreck site, in Bahia, Brazil
Recovered in 1977 during archaeological excavations at the Santı´ssimo Sacramento shipwreck site, in Bahia, Brazil
Provenance
Eroded
Eroded
Museo de las Casas Reales, santo Domingo, Dominican Republic Museo de las Casas Reales, santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Good Eroded Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia
Eroded
Very eroded
Museo de la Casa de Colon, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
In a private collection, England
Private collection, Mexico
Good
Good
Museo de las Casas Reales, santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Newfoundland department of Culture, recreation and Youth, St. John;s, Newfoundland, Canada
Eroded
Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Good
Eroded
Museu Naval e Oceanogra´fico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Historical and Naval Museum, Mahebourg, Mauritius
Condition
Situation
216 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Ericiera
Madrid I
Madrid II
Schoonhoven
Santiago
Red Bay
Banda II
Isle of Wight
Atocha II
Atocha III
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Atocha IV
Santa Escola´stica
49
60
Name
NMM no.
Table 4 continued
1614
1605
1616
c. 1625
1602
?
?
c. 1760
c. 1760
17001750
?
1624
Date made
1622
1622
1622
?
1615
1565
1585
NA
NA
NA
?
1700
Date lost
Salvaged in 1986 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha, off the Florida coast
Salvaged in 1986 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha, off the Florida coast
Salvaged in 1986 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha, off the Florida coast
Recovered in 1986 off St. Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, England
Salvaged in 1980 from the Dutch shipwreck Banda, in the Mauritius Island
Recovered in 1984 during archaeological excavations at the San Juan shipwreck site, in Labrador, Canada
Salvaged from the Portuguese shipwreck Santiago, in the Bassas da India atoll, France
Unknown
Collection of the Museo Naval de Madrid, Spain
Collection of the Museo Naval de Madrid, Spain
Found in 1983 on the beach, south of Ericeira, Portugal
Salvaged in 1983 from the Portuguese shipwreck Santa Escola´stica, in Bahia, Brazil
Provenance
Good
Purchased in 1988 by Lisbon’s Museu de Marinha
Broken and incomplete
Good
In a private collection
Purchased in 1988 by Lisbon’s Museu de Marinha
Eroded
In a private collection, England
Good
Eroded and broken
Parcs Canada, Canada
Purchased by the Scheepvaart Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Eroded
Good
Good
Good
Purchased in 1980 by Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Netherlands Goud- zilver- en Klokkenmuseum, Schoonhoven, The Netherlands
Collection of the Museo Naval de Madrid, Spain
Collection of the Museo Naval de Madrid, Spain
Eroded
Good
Museu Naval e Oceanogra´fico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Condition
Situation
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 217
123
123
c. 1600
1616
Huelva
Rinco´n
Cadiz I
Cadiz II
62
63
64
65
?
1648
1616
Atocha V
61
Date made
Name
NMM no.
Table 4 continued
?
?
1652?
?
1622
Date lost
Dredged up in 1981 off the entrance to Cadiz, from the site of a seventeenth century shipwreck
Dredged up in 1981 off the entrance to Cadiz, from the site of a seventeenth century shipwreck
Salvaged in 1986 from shipwreck site tentatively identified as Defiance, believed to have been lost in the region
Found in 1980 by a fisherman off Torre de la Higuera, Huelva, Spain
Salvaged in 1986 from the Spanish shipwreck Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha, off the Florida coast
Provenance
Good
Good
Unknown
Safe of the Instituto de Cultura Puertoriquen˜a, San Juan, Puerto Rico Purchased by the Scheepvaart Museum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Unknown
Eroded
Broken and incomplete
In a private collection
In a private collection, Spain
Condition
Situation
218 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Batavia I
15
Batavia II
Skokloster III
14
Caudebec
Skokloster II
13
16
Skokloster I
12
17
St. Andrews
Manila
7
Madre de Deos
Vera Cruz
6
11
Kronborg
5
10
Valencia
4
Champlain
Krabbe
3
Florence
Dundee
2
9
Palermo
1
8
Name
NMM no.
Ia6
Ilb
Ib
Ib
Ib
Ia7
Ia7
Ia2
Ia3
III
Ia5
Ia1
IIa
Ia5
IV
Ia6
Ia1
Type
90-0-90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0 and 90-090
0-90-0 and 90-090
0-90-0 and 90-090
0-90-0
0-90-0-90-0
90-0-90
90-0-90
0-90-0-90-0
90-0-90
90-0 and 0-90
0-90-0 and 90-090
Unnumbered
0-90-0-90-0
90-0-90
0-90-0
Scales of limb
19
*252
186
?
16
19
253
*410
19
14
16
14t/21b
15
3t/10b
16t/19b
10t/19b
18
17
11
16
15
Thickness (mm)
253
250
396
184
197
127
176
184
340
178
179
222
200
Diameter (mm)
Table 5 Characteristics of the astrolabes in Alan Stimson NMM inventory (1988)
1742?
?
?
5050
5000
4150
7700
2200
2360
629
2500
1870
5100
2270
2168
2900
?
Weight (gr)
French
Dutch
Dutch
Dutch
Dutch
Dutch
English
Portuguese
Portuguese
French?
Portuguese?
Spanish?
[Dutch]
Portuguese?
German
Portuguese
Portuguese
Nationality
Complex
Convex-concave
Convex w/waves
Convex w/waves
Convex w/waves
Convex-concave
Convex-concave
Concave-stepped
Semi-circular
NA
Semi-circular
Triangular/ Complex
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Full plate
Complex
Triangular
Ballast
Concavestepped
Eroded
Simple
Simple
Simple
Simple
Convex
Simple
Simple
Complex
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Simple
Concavestepped
No posts
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Post top
Simple
Eroded
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Simple
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Ogee w/points
Simple
Throne
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 219
123
123
Shiel
Arts et Me´tiers I
23
24
Padre Island II
Padre Island III
Bermuda
Mewstone Arts et Me´tiers II
29
30
31
32
Atocha I
Colombian
Batavia III
34
35
36
33
Girona II
Padre Island I
27
28
Coindreau
Lyme Bay
22
Girona I
Florence II
21
26
Florence I
20
25
Ia1
Ia1
Felix
19
Ia5
Ia1
Ia2
Obliterated
Obliterated
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90 and 90-0
Ia8
Obliterated
0-90-0
0-90-0
0-90-0
Obliterated
Obliterated
90-0-90
0-90-0
Obliterated
90-0-90
–
–
90-0-90-0-90
90-0 diagonal
Scales of limb
NA
Ia1
Ia1
Ia1
Ia1
Ia2
Ia3
Ia4
Ia
IV
IV
III
NA
Coimbra
18
Type
Name
NMM no.
Table 5 continued
178
13t/19b
9t/20b
169
208
185
153 r
180
175
245
227
26
10
14t/28b
20
11t/23b
10t/19b
15
12t/10.5b
13t/16b
*176 225
14t/17b
20
13t/15b
192
161
198
14t/16b
?
179
45
*670
5
10
Thickness (mm)
727
238
508
Diameter (mm)
?
1415
2840
2560
2495
1786
3968.7
2066
2090
1209
1797
2530
2943
1588
2041
?
?
1530
10,170
Weight (gr)
Portuguese
Spanish?
Portuguese
French?
?
?
Portuguese
Portuguese
Spanish?
Spanish
Spanish
Portuguese
Spanish
?
English?
English
English
?
Portuguese
Nationality
Semi-circular
Triangular
Concave-stepped
–
Complex
Triangular
Triangular
Triangular
Triangular
Concave
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Triangular
Triangular
Concave-stepped
Full plate
Full Plate
No ballast
Semi-circular
Ballast
Concavestepped
Simple
Simple
–
Complex
Concavestepped
Simple
Simple
Concavestepped
Eroded
Simple
Simple
Concavestepped
Simple
ConcaveStepped
No Posts
No Posts
Concavestepped
Convex
Post top
Eroded
Convex
Ogee w/Points
Simple
Eroded
Convex
Ogee w/Points
Convex
Concavestepped
Eroded
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Simple
Eroded
Simple
–
–
Ogee-stepped
Simple
Throne
220 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Las Palmas
Vergulde Draeck
Santa Escola´stica
Ericiera
Madrid I
Madrid II
Schoonhoven
49
50
51
52
53
Mounts Bay
46
48
Santa Margarita
45
47
Isle aux Morts
Concepcion B
41
44
Concepcion A
40
Concepcion C
Sacramento B
39
Banda I
Sacramento A
38
42
Batavia IV
37
43
Name
NMM no.
Table 5 continued
NA
V
V
Ia8
Ia5
Ib
0
Ia2
Ia5
Ia5
Ia6
Ia4
Ia5
Ia5
Ia5
Ia5
Ib
Type
0-90-0-90-0
0-90-0-90-0
90-0-90
Obliterated
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0-90-0
0-90-0
Obliterated
90-0-90
90-0-90-0-90
90-0-90
Obliterated
90-0-90
90-0-90
90-0-90
0-90-0 and 90-090
Scales of limb
150
293
300
180
169
253
220
207
150–200
172
200
11
[5]
[5]
12t/18b
19.5t/21b
17
5
13t/16b
–
21
13t/24b
23
?
*166 165.5
21
20
20
18
Thickness (mm)
175
171
173
253
Diameter (mm)
368
?
?
1845
2950
4280
2074
3288
?
2989
3240
2638
?
2947
2320
2565
?
Weight (gr)
English
English
Portuguese?
?
Portuguese
Dutch
Iberian
?
?
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Dutch
Nationality
Triangular
No ballast
No ballast
Complex
Semi-circular
Convex w/waves
Full plate
Concave
Eroded
Semi-circular
Complex
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Convex w/waves
Ballast
Simple
No posts
No posts
Complex
Concavestepped
Simple
No Posts
Concavestepped
Eroded
ConcaveStepped
Concavestepped
Simple
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Simple
Post top
Simple
Simple
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Convex
Ogee-stepped
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Concavestepped
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Throne
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 221
123
123
Cadiz I
Cadiz II
64
65
63
Atocha V
Huelva Rinco´n
61
62
Atocha III
Atocha IV
59
60
Isle of Wright
Banda II
56
Atocha II
Red Bay
55
58
Santiago
54
57
Name
NMM no.
Table 5 continued
?
Ia5
Ia5
Ia8
Ia2
Ia5
Ia3
Ia5
Ib
Ia5
Ia6
Ia1
Type
?
0-90-0
0-90-0
Obliterated
0-90-0
90-0-90
90-0-90
90-0-90
Obliterated
90-0-90
Obliterated
Obliterated
Scales of limb
?
167
170
183
212
172
156
171
[253]
175
205
180
Diameter (mm)
?
20
17
21
16
20t/21b
18t/20b
21t/22b
[19]
17t/20b
15
9t/19b
Thickness (mm)
?
2600
3082
2400
2720
2817
2180
3013
–
2500
?
1227
Weight (gr)
?
Spanish
Spanish?
Iberian
Spanish
Portuguese
Portuguese
Portuguese
Dutch
Portuguese
?
Portuguese
Nationality
?
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Complex
Concave
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Convex w/waves
Semi-circular
Complex
Triangular
Ballast
?
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Complex
Convex
Concavestepped
Simple
Concavestepped
Simple
Concavestepped
Complex
Simple
Post top
?
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee-stepped
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Eroded
Throne
222 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Name
Zacharchuk
Seahawk I
Seahawk II
Seahawk III
Seahawk IV
Lucayan I
San Martin
Aveiro
Isle aux Morts II
Crocker Reef
San Diego
NMM no.
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
?
?
1617
1575
1593
1602
?
?
?
?
?
Date made
1600
?
?
?
1618
1628?
1622?
1622?
1622?
1622?
?
Date lost
Eroded
Odyssey Marine collection
Salvaged from the Spanish shipwreck San Diego, off the Luzon coast, Philippines
Allegedly recovered by Carl Fismer in Mexico, probably Yucatan
Recovered by Wayne Mushrow in 1983 from unknown shipwreck near Isle aux Morts, Newfoundland, Canada
Found in 1994 at Ria de Aveiro by a fisherman
Found in 1993 by a salvage company working on the site
Found by John Brandon in 1993, in shallow water at the Grand Bahama
Unknown
Salvaged from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Nuestra Sen˜ora del Rosario y Buen Jesus, at Dry Tortugas, off the Florida coast
Eroded
Newfoundland Museum, Newfoundland, Canada
In the National Museum in Manila, Philippines
Good
Eroded
Good
Museu Marı´timo de Ilhavo, Portugal
Auctioned in 2008 by Daniel Frank Sedwick
Good
Eroded In a private collection
In John Brandon’s collection
Eroded
Eroded
Odyssey Marine collection
Salvaged from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Nuestra Sen˜ora del Rosario y Buen Jesus, at Dry Tortugas, off the Florida coast
Odyssey Marine collection
Eroded
Odyssey Marine collection
Salvaged from a Spanish shipwreck, possibly the Nuestra Sen˜ora del Rosario y Buen Jesus, at Dry Tortugas, off the Florida coast
Good
Unknown
Discovered by a Canadian Embassy Attache´ stationed in Cuba sometimes during the 1970’s while beach walking. (No beach name recorded.)
Condition
Situation
Provenance
Table 6 History and Situation of the astrolabes found and reported after 1988
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 223
123
Name
Hatcher
SJB I
SJB II
Raza Library
SJB III
Christie’s 1994
Museo Naval de Madrid
Passa Pau
Ile Brehat
Ines de Soto I
Ines de Soto II
NMM no.
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
Table 6 continued
123
?
1555
?
1645
?
?
1605
?
?
?
?
Date made
1566?
1566?
?
?
?
?
1606
?
1606
1606
1606?
Date lost
Recovered in 1992 during archaeological excavations at the Cayo Ines de Soto shipwreck site, Cuba
Recovered in 1992 during archaeological excavations at the Cayo Ines de Soto shipwreck site, Cuba
Unknown
Salvaged in 1999 from an unidentified shipwreck site in Cape Verde
Unknown
Unknown. Sold in London for $3286 by Christie’s in May 1994
Recovered in 1997 during archaeological excavations at the Nossa Senhora dos Ma´rtires shipwreck site, Lisbon, Portugal
Unprovenanced. Probably acquired after 1933
Recovered in 1997 during archaeological excavations at the Nossa Senhora dos Ma´rtires shipwreck site, Lisbon, Portugal
Recovered in 1996 by a sport diver from the site of the Nossa Senhora dos Ma´rtires Shipwreck, Lisbon, Portugal
Auctioned by Sotheby’s in November 1995. Possibly salvaged from the site of the Dutch shipwreck Nassau, near Malacca, Malaysia
Provenance
Eroded Eroded, 36 % missing
Eroded and broken
Carisub SA, Havana
Carisub SA, Havana
Corroded for lack of conservation
Good. No alidade and no pin
Eroded or melted
Unknown
Purchased by the Mariners Museum, Newport News, Virginia
Purchased in 2001 by the Museo Naval de Madrid
In a private collection
Good
Eroded
Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Eroded
Museu de Marinha, Lisbon, Portugal
Good
Good
Unknown
The Rampur Raza Library, India
Condition
Situation
224 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Oranjemund III
ARS
Lake Hipocee
Liddy
Fransisco Padre II
93
94
95
96
97
Funchal
Oranjemund II
92
100
Oranjemund I
91
Delalande
Sacramento C
90
Tenerife
S. Bento
89
99
Francisco Padre I
88
98
Name
NMM no.
Table 6 continued
1595
?
1643
?
1568
?
?
1656
?
?
Date made
?
?
–
a. 1578
1606?
?
?
1533
1533
1533
1668
1552
?
Date lost
Unknown. Allegedly purchased in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, in 1956
Allegedly found in the old harbor of Garachico, Tenerife
Sold at auction in Paris in November 2012
Found in the 1990s near cape San Antonio, Cuba, by CARISUB
Possibly salvaged from a 1606 shipwreck sunk in Malaysia
Found in a Native American mound at Lake Hipocee
Found in the Dominican Republic
Found in 2008 at Oranjemund, on the shipwreck site of the Portuguese Indiaman Bom Jesus, lost in today’s Namibia
Found in 2008 at Oranjemund, on the shipwreck site of the Portuguese Indiaman Bom Jesus, lost in today’s Namibia
Found in 2008 at Oranjemund, on the shipwreck site of the Portuguese Indiaman Bom Jesus, lost in today’s Namibia
Believed to have been salvaged from the Santı´ssimo Sacramento shipwreck site, in Bahia, Brazil
Salvaged from a shipwreck site, possibly of the Portuguese Indiaman Sa˜o Bento, in South Africa
Found in the 1990s near cape San Antonio, Cuba, by CARISUB
Provenance
Good
Eroded
Concreted
Eroded
Auctioned in 2010 by Daniel Frank Sedwick. In a private collection, USA Namibian government
Namibian government
Namibian government
Auctioned in 2014 at Charles Miller Ltd., London (£70.000)
In a private collection
Good. The Alidade and pin look new
Eroded
Good
Good
Museo Castillo de la Real Fuerza, La Habana, Cuba In a private collection
Eroded, about 50 % lost
Fragment In a private collection
Historical Museum of South Florida
Concreted and eroded
Eroded
In a private collection, South Africa
In conservation treatment, Dominican republic
Eroded
Condition
Museo Naval de Madrid
Situation
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 225
123
Name
Cadiz III
Ines de Soto III
Lucayan II
Lady Burgess
NMM no.
101
102
103
104
Table 6 continued
Date made
Date lost
123 Found by Arqueonautas SA at Joao Valente Reef, Cape Verde, in what is believed to be the remains of the ship Lady Burgess, lost in 1806
Found by John Brandon in 1993, in shallow water at the Grand Bahama
Recovered in 1992 during archaeological excavations at the Cayo Ines de Soto shipwreck site, Cuba
Found in 2013 during rescue archaeology works at Cadiz, on the remains of a military vessel tentatively dated to the seventeenth century
Provenance
Alidade
In cape Verde
Alidade
Carisub SA, Havana
Alidade
Good. Alidade is broken
In conservation treatment in Spain
In John Brandon’s collection
Condition
Situation
226 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Raza Library
SJB II
79
80
SJB I
78
Aveiro
73
Nassau
San Martin
72
77
Lucayan I
71
San Diego
Seahawk IV
70
76
Seahawk III
69
Isle aux Morts II
Seahawk II
68
Crocker Reef
Seahawk I
67
75
Zacharchuk
66
74
Name
NMM no.
III
Ia5
Ia5
Ia7
Ia3
Ia3
Ia6
Ia2
Ia6
Ia5
Ia2
Ia5
Ia5
Ia5
Ia7
Type
Unumbered
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0 and 90-090
Unnumbered
Obliterated
0-90-0-90-0
90-0-90
0-90-0
90-0-90
Obliterated
Obliterated
Obliterated
Obliterated
90-0-90
Scales of limb
187
175
167
?
183
?
195
197
203
?
206
173
171
186
186
Diameter (mm)
Table 7 Characteristics of the astrolabes found and reported after 1988
11
20t/22b
16t/18b
?
17t/18b
?
17t/35b
15t/19b
16t/18b
?
14t/27b
21t/23b
26
23t/24b
21
Thickness (mm)
1870
1769
1690
?
2434
?
?
2770
?
3500
2540
3126
3080
3402
Weight (gr)
French?
Portuguese?
Portuguese?
Iberian
Portuguese?
?
?
Portuguese
Spanish
?
Iberian
Iberian
Portuguese
Iberian
French?
Nationality
No ballast
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Complex
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Complex
Concave
Complex
Semi-circular
Concave
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Convexconcave
Ballast
Complex
Concavestepped
Eroded
Complex
Simple
Simple
Complex
Simple
Complex
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Concavestepped
Post top
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Simple
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Ogee w/Points
Throne
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 227
123
123
Bom Jesus/OMW III
ARS
Lake Hipocee
Liddy
Fransisco Padre II
93
94
95
96
97
Francisco Padre I
88
Bom Jesus/OMW II
Ines de Soto II
87
Bom Jesus/OMW I
Ines de Soto I
86
92
Ile Brehat
85
91
Passa Pau
84
S. Bento
Museo Naval de Madrid
83
Rio Grande do Norte
Christie’s 1994
82
89
SJB III
81
90
Name
NMM no.
Table 7 continued
Ia2
Ia6
?
Ia8
Ia1
Ia1
Ia1
Ia4
Ia1
Ia2
Ia1
Ia1
Ia8
Ia5
Ia6
Ia5
Ia3
Type
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0
Obliterated
Obliterated
0-90-0
Obliterated
90-0-90
Obliterated
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0
Obliterated
90-0-90
0-90-0
Obliterated
90-0-90
Scales of limb
186
272
?
?
200
180
175
166
?
185
170
202
?
171.5
205
175
174
Diameter (mm)
?
18
11t
?
6t/9b
11
9t/11b
23
?
19t/25b
10t/10b
14t/14b
?
22t/22b
15t/15b
?
20.3t/21.4b
Thickness (mm)
3168
?
?
900
2100
1400
2240
?
?
339
1380
?
2820
?
?
2843
Weight (gr)
?
?
?
?
Portuguese?
Portuguese?
Portuguese?
Portuguese
?
Portuguese
Spanish?
Spanish
?
Portuguese
Spanish?
?
Portuguese
Nationality
Concave
Complex
Not preserved
Complex
Triangular
Triangular
Triangular
Semi-circular
Triangular
Concavestepped
No ballast
Triangular
Convexconcave
Semi-circular
Complex
Semi-circular
Semi-circular
Ballast
Simple
Eroded
Concavestepped
Complex
Simple
Simple
Simple
Simple
Eroded
Simple
Complex
Concavestepped
Complex
Concavestepped
Complex
Concavestepped
Simple
Post top
Eroded
Eroded
Simple
Eroded
Eroded
Eroded
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Eroded
Eroded
Eroded
Eroded
?
Ogee w/Points
Complex
Complex
Ogee w/Points
Throne
228 J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234
Name
Delalande
Tenerife
Funchal
Cadiz III
Ines de Soto III
Lucayan II
Lady Burgess
NMM no.
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Table 7 continued
NA
NA
NA
Ia5
Ia2
Ia2
NA
Type
NA
NA
NA
?
90-0-90
Obliterated
0-90-0-90-0
Scales of limb
NA
NA
NA
?
188
?
?
Diameter (mm)
NA
NA
NA
?
?
?
?
Thickness (mm)
NA
NA
NA
?
3.57
?
?
Weight (gr)
NA
NA
NA
?
Portuguese
?
?
Nationality
NA
NA
NA
Semi-circular
Concave
Concave
Complex
Ballast
NA
NA
NA
Concavestepped
Simple
Concavestepped
Simple
Post top
NA
NA
NA
Ogee w/Points
Simple
Eroded
Ogee w/Points
Throne
J Mari Arch (2015) 10:205–234 229
123
230
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Fig. 4 Type 0 astrolabe Las Palmas, housed in the Museo Casa de Colo´n, in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Gran Canaria, probably dates to the early sixteenth century and most probably of Spanish origin (Photo: Museo Casa de Colo´n, Las Palmas)
second (NMM 16) has the ballast on top, classified by Waters and Stimson as II(b) and was lost in 1629 in the shipwreck of the Dutch Indiaman Batavia. Both astrolabes seem to be Dutch. The fourth category, ‘‘III—Wheel type without ballast,’’ has four specimens—NMM 8, 19, 22, 80. Stimson placed the NMM 8 and 22 specimens in the I(a) category, but we found it more useful to move them to category III. This group is rather heterogeneous and spans a wide range of dates and styles and, as the number of known astrolabes increases, it will probably be reanalyzed in the future. For instance, the Raza astrolabe (NMM 80) is similar in style to the Mewstone (NMM 32), Ericeira (NMM 50), Huelva (NMM 62), I¯le de Brehat (NMM 85), and ARS (NMM 94) astrolabes than to the other astrolabes in category III. The fifth category, ‘‘IV—Planisphere,’’ encompasses three astrolabes. The first is named Krabbe (NMM 3), dates to 1582 and is signed by the famous cartographer and mathematician Johannes Krabbe (c. 1553-1616). The second and third are named Florence I and II (NMM 20 and 21), which are not marine astrolabes proper. According to Stimson, these last instruments were invented by Robert Dudley and made around the mid-seventeenth century. The sixth and last category, ‘‘V—Concentric Rings,’’ encompasses two astrolabes, named Madrid I and II (NMM 51 and 52), dated to the eighteenth century, and illustrates a final form of the mariner’s astrolabe, in Stimson’s own words. Stimson kept the Arts et Me´tiers II astrolabe (NMM 33) out of his taxonomy, but we included it in a small unnamed category of atypical instruments, which includes the Coimbra (NMM 18), the Schoonhoven (NMM 53), and the Delalande (NMM 98) astrolabes.
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Four fragments are too small to allow any classification. A small post one top found by archaeologists in a Native American archaeological site at Like Hipocee, Florida, and three corroded alidades, one found in Cuba, one in the Grand Bahama, and one in Cape Verde in the remains of a late nineteenth century shipwreck, according to the treasure hunting company Arqueonautas SA. When compounded with the scale, maker marks, and diameter, these taxonomies can be refined although the size of the sample is not large enough to determine a better chronology for these interesting instruments, which can help date or identify a shipwreck. We expect to add at least four new specimens to the present list in the next years, and we hope that more astrolabes surface and become available for study.
Assemblages A small number of astrolabes has been recovered from shipwrecks in groups, giving some information on their use (Table 8). The three astrolabes from the Oranjemund ship, tentatively identified as the Portuguese Indiaman Bom Jesus, lost in 1533, are similar and the same can be said for the three astrolabes found on the Portuguese Indiaman Nossa Senhora dos Ma´rtires, lost in 1606, as well as the two known from Santı´ssimo Sacramento, lost in 1668. The Girona and Atocha astrolabes are types I(a)2 and 3, thus contemporary, and those of Espiritu Santo, Ines de Soto, Francisco Padre, Rosa´rio, and Concepcio´n are also similar and contemporary in each ship. Although astrolabes were sturdy and durable instruments, the dates available show that none of the specimens with dates preserved was older than 22 years when the respective ships sunk, if the Concepcio´n A (NMM 40) was indeed made in 16[1]9. The Dutch astrolabe assemblages seem less homogeneous. The Banda I (NMM 43) astrolabe was 47 years old at the time of the ship’s loss, while Banda II (NMM 56) was 13. Batavia’s assemblage is also heterogeneous, with one possibly Portuguese astrolabe (NMM 36) and the unique Batavia II specimen (NMM 16) found together with two typically Dutch type I(b) astrolabes (NMM 15 and 37).
Table 8 Astrolabe assemblages
a
Tentative identification
Ship
Date lost
Astrolabes
Bom Jesusa
1533
91, 92, 93
Girona
1588
26, 27
Espiritu Santo
1554
28, 29, 30
Ines de Soto
1556?
86, 87
Francisco Padre
a.1578
88, 97
Nossa Senhora dos Ma´rtires
1606
78, 79, 81
Banda
1615
43, 56
Nuestra Sen˜ora de Atocha
1622
34, 58, 59, 60, 61
Nuestra Sen˜ora del Rosa´rioa
1622
67, 68, 69
Batavia
1629
15, 16, 36, 37
Nuestra Sen˜ora de la Concepcio´n
1641
40, 41, 42
Santı´ssimo Sacramento
1668
38, 39
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Conclusions In fact, like the Cadiz II astrolabe, (NMM 65), other astrolabes have surfaced and disappeared before a single picture or measurement could be taken and the authors are trying to earn the trust of some collectors in order to improve the present list. We also expect alloy determinations to become cheaper and would like to explore that avenue of research 1 day. Hundreds or even thousands of astrolabes were cast in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, mostly on the Iberian Peninsula, as the surviving sample seems to suggest. All surviving astrolabes date to the Mannerism and Baroque periods and, like most other artifacts in Europe, were decorated according to the taste of the period and the maker. This fact invites the authors to attempt to establish a taxonomy and a chronology and try to guess their geographic origin based on shape and taste, marks, the arrangement of the scales, or the alloys, then 1 day we will be able to enter this data into our database. A small number of astrolabes are signed and some research has been done on some of the astrolabe makers. The Gois (or Goys) family, already mentioned above, is a good example to test our taxonomy with 11 specimens known in existence (Table 9). The Gois astrolabes bear dates that span a period of six decades (1593-1656) and their stylistic elements seem consistent with the general chronology related in this paper. All 11 specimens are type I(a), and their shapes can be divided into four different styles. The first group encompasses the earlier specimens from type I(a)2, Funchal (NMM 100) dated to 1593, and Francisco Padre II (NMM 97) that bears no date. The first specimen is signed ‘‘GOIS’’ and the second ‘‘SEBASTIAO DE GOIS.’’ A second group encompasses the type I(a)3 astrolabes: Atocha III (NMM 59), SJB III (NMM 81), and Florence (NMM 9). The first two have dates of 1605 and are signed ‘‘G,’’ and the third bears the date 1608 and is signed ‘‘GOIS.’’ The third group includes the type I(a)4 astrolabes: Concepcion C (NMM 42), Coindreau (NMM 25), and Rio Grande do Norte (NMM 90), dated to 1632, 1648, and 1656 respectively. The first is signed ‘‘GOIS’’ and the second and third ‘‘A GOYS.’’ The fourth and last group includes the Santa Escola´stica (NMM 49) and the Sacramento A and B (NMM 38 and 39) astrolabes, all type I(a)5. The first is dated to 1624 and the second and third bear no dates, although are known to have been lost in 1668. They are all signed ‘‘A GOYS.’’ The dates and styles of the surviving Gois astrolabes suggest there could have
Table 9 The known Gois astrolabes Astrolabe
Type
Date
Mark
Funchal (NMM 100)
I(a)2
1593
GOIS
Francisco Padre II (NMM 97)
I(a)2
No date
SEBASTIAO DE GOIS
Atocha III (NMM 59)
I(a)3
1605
G
SJB III (NMM 81)
I(a)3
1605
G
Florence (NMM 9)
I(a)3
1608
GOIS
Sta. Escola´stica (NMM 49)
I(a)5
1624
GOIS
Concepcio´n C (NMM 42)
I(a)4
1632
GOIS
Coindreau (NMM 25)
I(a)4
1648
A GOYS
R.G. do Norte (NMM 90)
I(a)4
1656
A GOYS
Sacramento A (NMM 38)
I(a)5
b. 1668
A GOYS
Sacramento B (NMM 39)
I(a)5
b. 1668
A GOYS
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been as many as five different members of this family making astrolabes, perhaps over three generations, and that they did not make a single model each. As usual, more questions arise from this study than have been answered. This subject is interesting from different viewpoints. Who made the first marine astrolabe? How did this technology spread? Who made astrolabes and for whom at any given time? Was the astrolabe shape and style determined by the maker or by the sailor that ordered it? Who owned astrolabes? Were they used aboard at the same time? The study of this instrument, its inventors, makers, merchants, and end users requires a multidisciplinary approach and is impossible without more resources and a larger team. We hope to see it advanced in the near future. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank a long list of people whose information was paramount to the conclusion of this paper. It is impossible to list them all here, but here are a few: Francisco Contente Domingues, Jorge Semedo de Matos, Alexandre Monteiro, Gustavo Garcia, Eliot Mowa, Vicente Benı´tez Cabrera, Roberto Garcı´a Guerra, Cesar and Elena Acosta, David Bouman, Diecerick Wildeman, Erika Laanela, Lori Temple, Mark Ferguson, Tim Rast, Jason Nowell, James Hyslop, John Brandon, Corey Malcom, Alejandro Mirabal, Sean Kingsley, Bobby Pritchett, Walter Zacharchuck, Paul Brandt, and many others. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of interest The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.
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