Sex Roles, Vol. 31, Nos. 9/10, 1994

The Relationship Between Gender Role Orientation and Perceived Self-Competency in Male and Female Adolescents I A m a n d a J. R o s e and R a y m o n d M o n t e m a y o r 2 The

Ohio State University

Relationships among gender, gender role orientation, grade, and perceived self-competency were examined in this study. Subjects were almost entirely Caucasian and included one hundred and ninety-four adolescents in the sixth through twelfth grades. The adolescents responded to the Children's Sex Role Inventory and the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents. Boys had higher perceived social and athletic competency; girls had higher perceived romantic appeal. Androgynous adolescents had the highest perceived scholastic competency, close friendship competency, and global self worth. Masculinity predicted perceived scholastic competency and close friendship competency in girls and boys and perceived global self worth in girls. Femininity predicted perceived scholastic competency in boys. There were no grade differences in perceived self-competency or in the relationship between gender, gender role orientation, and perceived self-competency.

S e l f - e s t e e m e n c o m p a s s e s o n e ' s s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n s of adequacy and worth. S e l f - e s t e e m may be an especially central issue during adolescence when establishing an independent identity becomes an important task. T h e r e f o r e , it is important to identify predictors of high self-esteem in young p e o p l e .

1Contributions to this research by Mary Eberly, Cheryl Hosley, Ginny Jelinek, Jolene Rose, Amy Weber, and Alice Weng are gratefully acknowledged. The authors would also like to thank the students, parents, administration, and Board of Education of West Carrollton Public School District for their cooperation with this study. :q'o whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210. 579 0360-0025/94/1100--0579507.00/0 0 1994 I'icnum Publishing Corporation

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Rose and Montemayor

Gender role orientation has been shown to predict self-esteem (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982a; Lamke, 1982b); however, the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem is not entirely clear. The primary purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem in adolescents in order to help clarify this issue. Three models of the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem have been the theoretical basis for research (Whitley, 1983). According to the congruence model, congruence between one's gender and one's gender role orientation results in psychological well-being (Kagan, 1964; Mussen, 1969). According to this model, exhibiting behavioral and psychological characteristics of one's own gender is considered natural and healthy but exhibiting characteristics of the opposite gender is not. The second model, the androgyny model, defines androgynous individuals as possessing both positive masculine traits such as assertiveness and autonomy and positive feminine traits such as nurturance and communication skills (Bem, 1974; Spence & Helmreich, 1978). According to this model, androgyny fosters self-esteem because androgynous individuals possess both instrumental and expressive qualities (Bern, 1974; Gilbert, 1981). Third, the masculinity model is based on empirical evidence which suggests that positive masculine traits are associated with high self-esteem in both males and females while the effect of feminine traits on self-esteem is negligible (Antil & Cunningham, 1979; Kelly & Worrell, 1977; Silvern & Ryan, 1979). These three models were evaluated by Whitley (1983) in a metaanalysis of 35 studies of the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem. According to Whitley, empirical research does not support the congruence model. In general, high masculinity is positively related to high self-esteem. Although high femininity also predicted high self-esteem, masculinity accounted for more of the self-esteem variance than did femininity. These results provide some support for the androgyny model because both masculinity and femininity were predictive of self-esteem; however, when the effects of masculinity and femininity were considered separately the masculinity model was more strongly supported. The main purpose of the present study is to examine the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem in male and female adolescents. Although the relationships among gender, gender role orientation and self-esteem have been investigated in early, middle, and late adolescence, no one study has included all three age groups. In the present study, however, these relationships are examined in boys and girls in the sixth through twelfth grades.

Perceived Self-Competency

581

In the majority of studies on the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem, self-esteem has been assessed one-dimensionally as global self-esteem. One-dimensional scales of global self-esteem such as the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967) and the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale (Piers & Harris, 1964) sum many areas such as cognitive competence, popularity, and physical appearance into a single score. Harter (1982) argues that the use of one-dimensional scales makes the false assumption that individuals evaluate themselves similarly across different areas of their lives. More recent studies of the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem in adolescence have assessed self-esteem multidimensionally (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lau, 1989). None of these studies, however, used a measure of self-esteem designed specifically for adolescents. Recently Harter developed a perceived self-competency scale for adolescents, the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1988). This scale was used in the present study both because it was developed specifically for adolescents and because it assesses seven specific areas of perceived self-competency: global self worth, romantic appeal, scholastic competency, social competency, athletic competency, physical appearance competency, and close friendship competency. Perceived romantic appeal has not been assessed in previous studies nor has general social self-esteem been divided into perceived social competency and perceived close friendship competency. These two scales measure different aspects of social self-esteem: perceived social competency focuses on how likable and popular one feels; while perceived close friendship competency examines how competent one feels in interpersonal relationships. Measuring self-esteem multidimensionally is important when examining gender differences. Few differences between adolescent girls and boys in global self-esteem have been reported (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982a; Lamke, 1982b; Wells, 1980). However, gender differences in specific domains of self-esteem have often been found. Girls have higher levels of social self-esteem (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Wells, 1980), while boys have higher self-esteem in physical abilities (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lau, 1989). These gender differences may be due to traditional gender role socialization in which girls are socialized to value and therefore develop interpersonal relationship skills while boys are socialized to engage in physical activities and sports (Douvan & Adelson, 1966). Gender differences in the stability of self-esteem during adolescence have also been examined. Traditionally adolescence was thought to be a period of "storm and stress" (Hall, 1904) during which adolescents were vulnerable to self-esteem problems. In line with this idea, Simmons, Rosenberg, and their colleagues have found girls' but not boys' self-esteem to decrease during adolescence (Blyth, Simmons, & Carlton-Ford, 1983; Simmons, Blyth, Van Cleave & Bush, 1979; Simmons & Rosenberg, 1975). Other studies,

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however, have found increases or stability in both boys' and girls' self-esteem in adolescence (Butcher, 1989; McCarthy & Hoge, 1982; Nottelmann, 1987; O'Malley & Bachman, 1983) leading to an emerging consensus that selfesteem does not necessarily decline during adolescence. Evidence for possible developmental differences in the relationships among gender, gender role orientation and self-esteem is also mixed. The masculinity model is supported in female adolescents and in male adolescents between the ages of 12-15 years (Butcher, 1989; Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982a; Lamke, 1982b; Wells, 1980). In older adolescent boys between the ages of 14-18 years, however, findings are inconsistent. Cate and Sugawara (1986) assessed self-esteem multidimensionally and found that masculinity was related to social and athletic self-esteem in older adolescent boys. However, they also found that neither masculinity nor femininity was related to global self worth in these boys. When self-esteem was measured onedimensionally, however, Lamke (1982a) found that both masculinity and femininity predicted self-esteem in older adolescent boys while Wells (1980) found that neither masculinity nor femininity predicted self-esteem in older adolescent boys. These conflicting results again make apparent the importance of assessing self-esteem multidimensionally when examining the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem. In the present study we examined the relationship between gender role orientation and perceived ,self-competency in adolescents. Perceived self-competency is assessed multidimensionally. Gender differences in perceived self-competency are studied, and perceived self-competency and the relationships among gender, gender role orientation and perceived selfcompetency are assessed developmentally.

METHOD

Subjects Adolescents and their parents were recruited as part of a larger study of parent-adolescent relationships; however, only the adolescents' data were used in the present study. Families who were contacted were randomly selected from the school roster of the participating school. The families were contacted with an introductory letter and a follow-up telephone call. Of the 614 families contacted on the telephone, 215 (35%) participated. Most of the families who did not participate indicated that they did not have the time to complete the questionnaires. The larger study required both parents and the adolescent to participate, and the time commitment was approximately three hours for each family. A raffle for two $100 prizes was used as an incentive for participation.

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The families in this study resided in a mid-western school district with a population of approximately 35,000. In the school district were five elementary schools (grades kindergarten though sixth), a junior high school (grades seventh through ninth), and a senior high school (grades tenth through twelfth). Families in the study were over 98% Caucasian with the other two percent consisting of African-Americans and Asians. The number of children in the home ranged from one to six children with an average of two children. Annual family income ranged from under $20,000/year to over $100,000/year (X = $45,000-$49,999/year). Most parents had completed some college; although some had not finished high school while others had post-graduate educations. Of these 215 families who agreed to participate, data from 194 adolescents could be used. Data from the remaining 21 adolescents could not be used because the questionn~iires were either not completed or completed incorrectly. Participants included 21 sixth graders (10 girls, 11 boys), 30 seventh graders (16 girls, 14 boys), 30 eighth graders (15 girls, 15 boys), 26 ninth graders (11 girls, 15 boys), 29 tenth graders (14 girls, 15 boys), 28 eleventh graders (12 girls, 16 boys), and 29 twelfth graders (17 girls, 12 boys). Their ages ranged from 12 to 18 years. The mean age for girls was 14.9 years and the mean age for boys was 14.5 years.

Instruments Children's Gender Role Orientation. The Children's Sex Role Inventory (CSRI) (Bodizar, 1991) is a simplified version of the Bern Sex Role Inventory which replaces each adjective of the Bern scale with a more easily understood adjective phrase. There are 20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 neutral adjective phrases. The CSRI gives a masculinity and femininity score. For each adjective phrase, adolescents respond from one (if the phrase is not a~ all true of them) to four (if the phrase is very true of them). Bodizar found that the correlation between the CSRI and the Bern scale was r = .86 for the masculine scale and r = .89 for the feminine scale. The inter-item reliability for the masculine and feminine scales was .75 and .84 respectively. The average stability of the scale over one year was .64 (Bodizar, 1991). Perceived Self-Competency. The Self Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1988) taps different aspects of perceived self-competency as well as global self worth. Subscales include perceived scholastic competency (academic performance), social competency (number of friends; how likable one is), athletic competency (athletic/sports ability), physical appearance competency (satisfaction with the way one looks), romantic appeal (ability to attract

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members of the opposite sex and to be interesting on a date), close friendship competency (ability to make and maintain close friendships), job competency (having job skills), behavioral conduct (satisfaction with ones' behaviors), and global self worth (general happiness with one's life). Each subscale consists of five items. Seven of the nine subscales were used in the present study. The job competency subscale was omitted because many of the adolescents were too young to hold jobs. Also, the behavioral conduct subscale was omitted because the behaviors addressed appeared to be vague. Harter found that each subscale was internally consistent with Cronbach alphas ranging from .78 to .88 (Harter, 1988). The format of the items in the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents was designed to lessen the influence of social desirability. One item states that "some people my age do well at their homework but other people my age do not." First the adolescents must choose which individual they are most like. If adolescents decide they are most like the person who does well on homework, they then must answer if the statement about that person is "very true of me" or "sort of true of me." A score of four reflects the highest perceived self-competency while a score of one reflects the lowest perceived self-competency. A mean is calculated for each subscale.

Procedures Families received the questionnaire packets in the mail. Adolescents completed the CSRI and the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents, and the families returned the questionnaires in an envelope provided. A card was included for the raffle. However, returning the card was not required, and the card and questionnaires were separated upon arrival.

RESULTS Gender Role Orientation Distribution Based on the CSRI, a femininity score and a masculinity score were calculated for each subject. The inter-item reliability for the femininity and masculinity subscales was .82 and .81, respectively. The correlation between the femininity and masculinity subscales was r = .20 (p < .05) for girls and r = .18 (p = n.s.) for boys. Although femininity and masculinity were significantly correlated for girls, the small magnitude of the correlation indicates that the scores are orthogonal and scores can be treated as independent scores.

585

Perceived Self-Competency Table I. Distribution of Adolescents into Gender Role Orientation Groups Masculinity Gender Girls Femininity High Low

Boys Femininity High Low

High

Low

(Androgynous) N = 27

(Feminine) N = 36

(Masculine) N=7

(Undifferentiated) N=26

(Androgynous) N=23

(Feminine) N = 10

(Masculine) N = 35

(Undifferentiated) N = 30

Adolescents were divided into four gender role orientation groups, masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated, in order to examine differences in perceived self-competency among these groups. Median scores (masculinity = 2.88; femininity = 2.95) were used to divide subjects into the four groups using the median split technique (Bem, 1977; Spence et al., 1975). The masculine group consisted of adolescents with masculine scores above the median and feminine scores below the median, and the feminine group consisted of adolescents with feminine scores above the median and masculine scores below the median. Androgynous adolescents had both masculine and feminine scores above the medians, and undifferentiated adolescents had both masculine and feminine scores below the medians. The distribution of adolescents into these four groups is presented in Table I. Because there were so few masculine girls (N = 7) and feminine boys (N = 10), adolescents with these gender role orientations were eliminated from further study. Three gender role orientation categories were then examined: androgynous; undifferentiated; and traditional. Traditional adolescents were either feminine girls or masculine boys.

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Rose and Montemayor

Grade, Gender, Gender Role Orientation, and Perceived Self-Competency Because the subscales of the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents are correlated, a 3 x 2 x 3 multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine the relationship between overall perceived self-competency and gender role orientation (androgynous, traditional, undifferentiated), gender (girl, boy), and grade. Children were divided into three grade groups of approximately equal numbers: early (grades 6-7; N = 51); middle (grades 8-9; N = 56); and late (grades 10-12; N = 86). A main effect was found for gender role orientation, F(2, 175) = 1.86, p < .05, and gender, F(1, 175) = 5.00, p < .0001. No main effect was found for grade. Also, all two way interactions and the three way interaction (gender x gender role orientation x grade) were non-significant. Univariate analysis of variance was used first to examine differences in the seven subscales of perceived self-competency by gender role orientation group (boys and girls together). Then univariate analysis of variance was used to examine differences in the seven subscales of perceived self-competency by gender. Main effects for gender role orientation were found for perceived scholastic competency, perceived close friendship competency, and perceived global self worth. Scheffe's tests were performed to determine the significant mean differences among the gender role orientation groups for these three subscales. For perceived scholastic competency, Scheffe's test indicated that androgynous adolescents had higher perceived scholastic competency than traditional and undifferentiated adolescents. For perceived close friendship competency, androgynous adolescents had higher perceived self-competency than traditional adolescents, but the undifferentiated group differed neither from the androgynous group nor the traditional group. Finally, when examining perceived global self worth, androgynous adolescents were found to have higher perceived global self worth than undifferentiated adolescents, but the traditional group differed neither from the androgynous group nor the undifferentiated group. There were no gender role orientation effects for perceived social competency, athletic competency, physical appearance competency, or romantic appeal. The mean perceived self-competency scores by gender role orientation groups are presented in Table II. Gender differences were examined using univariate analyses of variance which revealed main effects for gender for perceived social competency, athletic competency, and romantic appeal. Boys had higher perceived social and athletic competency, and girls had higher perceived romantic appeal. There were no gender effects for perceived scholastic competency, physical appearance competency, close friendship competency, or global self worth. The mean perceived self-competency scores by gender are presented in Table III.

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Table IIL Perceived Self-Competency Subscale Scores Compared by Gender Gender Subscale

Girls

Boys

F

Scholastic competency

3.08

3.08

.14

Social competency

2.54

2.93

11.18b

Athletic competency

2.28

2.57

7.06a

Physical appearance competency

2.48

2.50

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Romantic appeal

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3.01

13.16b

Close friend competency

2.86

2.95

.86

Global self worth

3.00

2.86

.57

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< .01. bp < .001.

Contributions of Masculinity and Femininity to Self-Competency For each of the seven subscales of perceived self-competency, the androgynous group consistently had the highest scores of the three gender role orientation groups. Furthermore, when gender role orientation group differences were found in perceived self-competency they favored the androgynous group. The subjects in the androgynous group, by definition, have both high femininity and high masculinity scores. The following series of analyses are intended to determine the relative contributions of masculinity and femininity to perceived self-competency. Pearson correlations between masculinity and femininity and each perceived self-competency subscale were calculated for girls and boys in order to examine the association between masculinity and femininity and perceived self-competency. These correlations are presented in Table IV. For girls, masculinity is significantly correlated with perceived scholastic, social, and close friendship competency, perceived romantic appeal, and perceived global self worth; however, femininity is not significantly correlated with any of the subscales. For boys, masculinity is significantly correlated with perceived scholastic, social, athletic, physical appearance, and close friendship competency. Further, femininity is sign~cantly correlated with perceived social competency.

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Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to examine whether femininity explained any perceived self-competency variance after masculinity was e n t e r e d into the regression equation. Masculinity was entered first because it has been found to be more strongly related to self-esteem than femininity (Lamke, 1982b; Cate & Sugawara, 1986). The only aspects of perceived self-competency examined were those for which gender role orientation group differences were found: scholastic competency, close friendship competency, and global self-worth. Masculinity in girls is a significant predictor of girls' perceived scholastic competency (R 2 = .14), perceived close friendship competency (R 2 = .09), and perceived global self worth (R 2 = .10). Adding femininity to the regression equation accounted for no additional variance, Masculinity in boys is a significant predictor of boys' perceived scholastic competency (R 2 = .09) and perceived close friendship competency (R 2 = .09). Femininity is a significant predictor of boys' perceived scholastic competency even after masculinity was entered into the regression analysis (R 2 change = .04). Femininity did not account for any additional variance in perceived close friendship competency or perceived global self worth. Grade (low, middle, high) was then entered into the regression equation in order to test for possible grade differences in perceived self-competency. None were found. Finally, the interaction terms, masculinity x grade and femininity x grade were entered. No interactions were found. Results of these analyses can be seen in Table V.

DISCUSSION Based on previous research (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982b; Whitley, 1983), the relationship between gender role orientation and perceived self-competency was expected to support the masculinity model rather than the congruence or androgyny model. In each of the subscales for which gender role orientation differences were found, perceived scholastic competency, close friendship competency, and global self worth, androgynous adolescents had the highest perceived self-competency. These results appear to support the androgyny model. When the unique contributions of masculinity and femininity to perceived selfcompetency were examined, however, masculinity accounted for more variance in perceived self-competency than did femininity which supports the masculinity model.

Perceived Self-Competency

591

Table V. Perceived Self-Competency Variance A c c o u n t e d for by Masculinity, Femininity, and G r a d e Using Multiple Regression Analysis Subscales

R2

F

R 2 change

F

Girls Scholastic competency Masculinity Femininity Grade Masculinity x G r a d e Femininity x G r a d e

.14 .15 .16 .16 .16

13.43c 7.58c 5.08t' 3.8(]' 3.10 a

.01 .01 .00 .00

1.64 .22 .10 .40

Close friendship competency Masculinity Femininity Grade Masculinity x G r a d e Femininity x G r a d e

.09 .10 .11 .12 .13

8.51 t' 4.75 a 3.46 a 2.84 a 2.48

.01 .01 .01 .01

.99 .90 .97 1.02

Global self worth Masculinity Femininity Grad e Masculinity x G r a d e Femininity x G r a d e

.10 .11 .11 .12 .13

9.560 4.99 b 3.40 a 2.72 a 2.39 a

.01 .00 .01 .01

.47 .31 .71 1.08

Boys Scholastic competency Masculinity Femininity Grade Masculinity x G r a d e Femininity x G r a d e

.09 .13 .16 .17 .18

7.81 b 6.47 t' 5.18 b 4.01 b 3.56

.04 .03 .01 .01

4.78/' 2.38 .57 1.65

Close friendship competency Masculinity Femininity Grade Masculinity x G r a d e Femininity x G r a d e

.09 .11 .12 .12 .13

8.67 t' 5.33 t' 3.68 a 2.80° 2.34a

.02 .01 .00 .01

1.90 .45 .25 .55

Global self worth Masculinity Femininity Grade Masculinity x Grade Femininity x G r a d e

.01 .04 .04 .04 .06

.87 1.70 1.14 .87 1.06

.03 .00 .00 .02

2.51 .05 .11 1.79

ap < .05. bp < .01.

Cp < .001.

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Rose and Montemayor

Masculinity predicting perceived scholastic and close friendship competency in girls and boys and perceived global self worth in girls may be explained by the instrumental nature of many of the masculine adjectives. In regards to perceived scholastic competency, instrumental qualities such as ambition and independence are necessary for success in school. The findings that masculinity was positively related to perceived close friendship competency was unexpected because femininity has been associated with close interpersonal relationships. One explanation for this finding is that adolescent friendships are at least partially based on shared activities (Berndt, 1982), so masculine, instrumental adolescents who plan, organize, and lead activities would be sought after. High femininity was found to predict high perceived scholastic competency in boys but not girls. The need for expressive qualities such as verbal ability and communication skills to do well in school may explain this finding. Furthermore, traditional feminine qualities may temper the behavior of highly masculine boys who might otherwise focus on sports. In the present study, gender role orientation differences were found for only three of the seven perceived self-competency subscales, and the amount of variance explained ranged from only four to fifteen percent. This indicates that gender role orientation is a small to moderate contributor to perceived self-competency. Some studies have found self-esteem, or specific dimensions of self-esteem, to be unrelated to gender role orientation (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Streiker & Kurdek, 1982; Wells, 1980). In combination these findings indicate that variation in self-esteem and perceived self-competency during adolescence is primarily accounted for by factors other than gender role orientation. Of the gender differences found for perceived self-competency, boys' superiority in perceived social competency was the most surprising since previous research found girls to be higher in this area (Wells, 1980; Cate & Sugawara, 1986). Differences in the assessment of perceived social competency may partly explain this inconsistency. The Self Perception Profile for Adolescents includes both a perceived social competency subscale, which measures popularity, and a perceived close friendship c o m p e t e n c y subscale, which measures competence in interpersonal relationships. A sample question from the perceived social competency subscale is "some people my age are popular with others their age but other people my age are not very popular." A sample question on the perceived close friendship competency subscale is "some people my age have a close friend they can share secrets with but other people my age do not have a really close friend they can share secrets with." Social self-esteem scales used in previous studies have not differentiated between

Perceived Self-Competency

$93

popularity and competence in interpersonal relationships. In the present study, boys may have perceived themselves as having higher social competence (popularity) than girls because boys tend to associate with large groups of other boys whereas girls' peer relationships more often involve dyads and small groups (Thorne, 1986). Gender differences in perceived athletic competency and perceived romantic appeal may be due to traditional gender role socialization. Competition and physical activity are strongly encouraged in boys while girls traditionally have been taught to value social relationships and romantic appeal (Douvan & Adelson, 1966). Furthermore, Erikson theorizes that while a boy's task during adolescence is to establish an a u t o n o m o u s identity, a girl's task is to develop the capacity for interpersonal intimacy (Erikson, 1968). No grade differences for perceived self-competency were found for girls or boys. These results are aligned with the emerging consensus that adolescents are not particularly vulnerable to self-esteem difficulties (Butcher, 1989; McCarthy & Hoge, 1982; Nottelmann, 1987; O'Malley & Bachman, 1983). The previous theory that adolescence was an especially problematic time for girls' self-esteem was largely based on the research of Simmons, Rosenberg, and their colleagues (Blyth et al., 1983; Simmons et al., 1979; Simmons & Rosenberg, 1975). However, their data were collected in 1968 before the social and educational changes of women's movement. There may now be less risk of low self-esteem for females during the transition from childhood to adolescence. Studies showing self-esteem stability in adolescence suggest that self-esteem may be established by the time children reach adolescence. A longitudinal or cross-sequential design rather than a cross-sectional design should be used in future research, however, for a more powerful test of developmental differences in perceived self-competency. There were also no grade differences in the relationship between gender role orientation and perceived self-competency. The masculinity model was supported for boys and girls throughout adolescence as has been found previously for girls and younger adolescent boys. Although previous studies found contradicting results regarding the relationship between gender role orientation and self-esteem in older adolescent boys when self-esteem was measured one-dimensionally (Lamke, 1982a; Wells, 1980), the present study is aligned with the study by Cate and Sugawara (1986) in which selfesteem was measured multidimensionally. In both studies, the masculinity model was supported in various dimensions of perceived self-competency but gender role orientation was unrelated to global self worth. Measuring self-esteem multidimensionally appears to provide a clearer picture of the relationship between gender role orientation and perceived self-competency throughout adolescence.

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Overall, femininity was unrelated to perceived self-competency, a conclusion confirmed by previous research (Cate & Sugawara, 1986; Lamke, 1982b; Wells, 1980). Future research might search for areas of perceived self-competency which are related to femininity but which are not assessed by traditional measures of self-esteem or p e r c e i v e d self-competency. Such areas might be caretaking or empathy, for example. On a m o r e basic level, the concept of femininity may n e e d to be reconceptualized and assessed more appropriately. In the present study as well as many other studies examining gender role orientation, some version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory is used to assess femininity. The BSRI was created in the mid 1970's and may not be an accurate measure of femininity in the 1990's. The present study contributes to the literature on gender role orientation and perceived self-competency in adolescence first by using the Self Perception Profile for Adolescents. Perceived self-competency is measured more appropriately than in previous studies because the scale was designed for adolescents. Also, perceived self-competency is assessed more thoroughly because the scale assesses perceived romantic appeal. In addition, perceived social competency and perceived close friendship competency were assessed separately. Assessing perceived social competency and perceived close friendship competency separately was important because it led to the unexpected finding that boys are higher than girls in perceived social competency. Lastly, this study was the first to examine the relationships among gender, gender role orientation, and perceived self-competency throughout the entire range of adolescence.

REFERENCES Antil, J. K., & Cunningham, J. D. (1979). Self-esteem as a function of masculinity in both sexes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 783-785. Bern, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162. Bern, S. L. (1977). On the utility of alternative procedures for assessing psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 196-205. Berndt, T. J. (1982). The features and effects of friendships in early adolescence. Child Development, 53, 1447-1460. Blyth, D. A., Simmons, R. G., & Carlton-Ford, S. (1983). The adjustment of early adolescents to school transitions. Journal of Early Adolescence, 3, 105-120. Bodizar, J. (1991). Assessing sex typing and androgyny in children: The children's sex role inventory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 505-515. Butcher, J. E. (1989). Adolescent girls' sex role development: Relationship with sports participation, self esteem, and age of menarche. Sex Roles, 20, 575-593. Cate, R., & 8ugawara, A. I. (1986). Sex role orientation and dimensions of self-esteem among middle adolescents. Sex Roles, 15, 145-158. Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.

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