J Relig Health DOI 10.1007/s10943-015-0178-3 IMPRESSIONISTIC REPORTING
The Suicide Paradigm: Insights from Ancient Hindu Scriptures Govindasamy Agoramoorthy1 · Minna J. Hsu2
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract The world religions in general promote peace and happiness. They strongly discourage all sorts of violence in society including suicide. Religious commitments toward life-saving value are known to prevent suicide attempts since all world religions promote unity, reducing interpersonal hostilities. Therefore, understanding the basics on what religious scriptures narrate on life and death including suicide is essential. This paper highlights the seldom discussed topic on the concept and consequences of suicide portrayed in the ancient Hindu religious scriptures. Keywords
Suicide · Death · Culture · Tradition · Hinduism · Religion · Society · India
Introduction Religion plays an important role in society. According to surveys conducted by the World Happiness Report, most of the people (68 %) worldwide accept that religions promote happiness in their lives (Helliwell et al. 2014). But, a simple thought of death can shake even a strong-willed person instantly. Some may say that they look forward to face death, while most may avoid talking about this scary subject. Anyway, death incidentally happens, either naturally or unnaturally, through accidents and suicide. All organisms are shaped by natural selection, and the life of a species starts with birth and ends in death (Ehrlich 2000). Some species are born and perish fast, while some live long. A tiny fruit fly may live for 50 days, while the bristlecone pine can live up to 5000 years (Lewington 2012). People are aware of the causes involving death; they are reminded often through
& Minna J. Hsu
[email protected] 1
College of Pharmacy and Health Care, Tajen University, Yanpu, Pingtung 907, Taiwan
2
Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
123
J Relig Health
news media on the incidents of human demise, be it natural or unnatural. It is not easy though to comprehend on what happens after death. Science has dealt cases of near-death experiences (Appleby 1989). But, it has not offered any insights into the aftermath of death. But, various religions have their views on the afterlife including heaven and hell (Johnson and McGee 1998). Then, some may ask, how ancient religions like Hinduism view death and the afterlife? A closer look at the religious scriptures may provide some answer to this unyielding quest. Over a billion people follow Hindu religion in many countries around the world. It is also the predominant religion of India. India harbors a population of 1.3 billion people, and 78.4 % of them follow Hinduism (Agoramoorthy 2014). Hindu religion generally considers all beings, from the smallest to the largest, the manifestation of the divine (Jagannathan 2015). Therefore, killing or harming (himsa in Sanskrit) any lifeform is simply prohibited. However, little is known in social science literature on how Hindu religion views the subject of suicide. In this paper, we highlight the subject of suicide in Hindu society with references from ancient scriptures.
Methods of Data Collection and Analysis We collected data related to suicide portrayed in Hindu religion after referring religious scriptures, research papers and books. We pooled the suicide data from the archives of the Government of India’s National Crimes Records Bureau (NCRB 2014). We calculated the standardized suicide rates per 100,000 between 1967 and 2013. We used the population and gender data census records collected once in 10 years from 1971 to 2011. All statistical analyses were done by using the Statistical Analysis System software, and all mean values were presented as ±1 standard deviation (SAS Institute 2000). We also used the paired student t test, to determine gender differences of sex-specific standardized suicide rates from 1971 to 2011.
Suicide: Is it Uniquely Human? The term suicide originates from the Latin word Suicidium, meaning self-killing (Daube 1972). It happens due to various reasons from psychological depression to economic desperation. Then, what about suicide in animals? Animals are known to have emotions (McMillan 2005). The topic of animal suicide has been debated in scientific forums (Ramsden and Wilson 2010). Behaviorists identified three types of suicidal attitudes that include unfavorable dispersions connected to population or environmental pressure, selfless sacrifice to protect group or clan, and distress over the loss of loved ones (Bourgeois 1987). Some species of ants, termites and aphids are known to burst their internal organs/ glands in defense to protect their colonies from invading predators (Bordereau et al. 1997). Domestic animals are also reported to grieve over the death of loved ones (King 2014). The first author (GA) witnessed an incident several years ago. When his father passed away, his pet dog refused to eat and died after 2 days. The stress endured by the pet may therefore go beyond comprehension. But similar incidents happen, be it the mysterious beaching of whales or some depressed horse decide to die, there are reports that continue to portray emotionally intrigued cases of animal suicide. Experts worry that in the absence of
123
J Relig Health
animal models, future studies involving the biological factors associated with suicide will not be easy to understand (Preti 2011).
Suicide in Hindu Society Suicide is an unusual phenomenon since it raises a painful query on human nature (deCatanzaro 1980). It brings tragedy to families. Victims are reported to choose either the physical option to incapacitate respiratory or central nervous system by suffocating key organs or the chemical options of interrupting vital biological processes in the body (Agoramoorthy and Hsu 2011). Statistics show that a person commits suicide every 40 s, making it one of the leading causes of mortality (Pool 2009). From victims’ point of view, they find a quick fix to avoid an unavoidable mental, physical or psychological agony. But, the society cannot ignore this enduring social distress. In India, 134,799 people died due to suicide in 2013. Among them, 70.8 % were married men and 66.6 % were married women, which came to 15 lost lives per hour (NCRB 2014). India’s standardized suicides rate per 100,000 was 7.8 in 1967; it went up to 10.9 in 2013. Besides, the maximum standardized suicide rate peaked in 2010 (Fig. 1a). India’s population increased from 500 million in 1967 to 1.3 billion in 2013 (148 % increase), while the suicide rate also increased by 248 % during the same period (Fig. 1b). A significant difference among gender in standardized suicide rates was found (paired t test, t = 4.71, P \ 0.01). The average standardized suicide rate (per 100,000) of men came to
15
15
A 10
Rate
10
Total Male Female
5
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
140
Number of Suicide (1000)
Fig. 1 India’s suicide rate from 1967 to 2013; a male, female and total standardized suicide rate (per 100,000 populations), b total number, male and female suicidal persons increased over four decades
120 100
5
0
140
B
120
Male Female Total
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
0
Year
123
J Relig Health
10.62 ± 2.8 (n = 5), which is 1.5 times (range 1.3–1.7, SD = 0.16, n = 5) of female suicide rate (7.2 ± 1.5). In 2011 alone, the sex-specific standardized suicide rate reached maximum of 5.9 (Fig. 1a). The techniques used for suicide included hanging (39.8 %), followed by poisoning (27.9 %), burning (7.4 %) and drowning (5.7 %). The socioeconomic problems were obvious reasons for men to choose suicide, while emotional and personal reasons forced women toward suicide. Among the 20 known causes, family problems (24.6 %) and illness (19.9 %) accounted for 44.6 %. The unknown causes (15.9 %) and other reasons (17.7 %) accounted for 33.6 %. The illness-related reasons included prolonged illness (12.3 %), followed by mental illness (6.3 %), paralysis (0.5 %), cancer (0.5 %) and AIDS (0.4 %). India ranks third globally in AIDS with 2.1 million cases of people living with HIV, and 130,000 people had died of AIDS in 2013 (Agoramoorthy and Chakraborty 2015). Besides, India lags behind other developing countries on key health indicators, including mental health (Agoramoorthy 2011). It is therefore crucial for the government to allocate more funds to tackle social issues, and then only, the suicide-induced mortality in the above cases can be minimized in future. Other potential causes of suicide included love failure (3.3 %), drug abuse (3.1 %), bankruptcy (2.1 %), dowry harassment (1.9 %), exam failure (1.8 %), poverty (1.7 %), unemployment (1.6 %) and property dispute (1 %). In four states, namely Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, more than half (54.9 %) of the victims were above 60 years, which shows that senior citizens face enormous distress in society. They have to be looked after by family members and social workers to mitigate problems at grassroots. The Maharashtra state has recorded the highest suicide rate of 12.3 % in 2013, and it has a long history of mass suicide by farmers. It is essential for the government to set up a national-level academy to promote multidisciplinary research to understand the causes of farmer suicide in villages. Furthermore, the government needs to enforce a policy to ban illegal loan sharks lending money to farmers. Instead, the government and private sector banks may need to lend farmers low-interest loans so that they can cope up with future crop failure and other financial issues. Also, devotion to god may help farmers to come out of distress. Social workers and counselors who deal Hindu farmers can introduce the practice of devotion, prayers and visiting temples that may help them to avoid suicidal thoughts.
Cultural Views of Suicide In ancient Greece, a person committing suicide without the approval of the State was denied traditional burial honors (Nydegger 2014). In the ancient Rome however, suicide was initially allowed, but later it became a criminal act (Leming and Dickinson 2010). By the mid-twentieth century, suicide has become legal in most of the western countries. In Asia, suicide is still viewed as a noble way to exit from shameful humiliation to save face. The suicide rate in Taiwan, for example, has increased from 6.4 per 100,000 people in 1993 to 17.2 per 100,000 people in 2007 (Agoramoorthy and Hsu 2011). When a Hong Kong woman committed suicide by sealing her room with burning charcoal in 1998, the media sensationalized the incident. Later, suicide by charcoal burning became the most popular option. Instead of seeking help, victims preferred death by smoke inhalation. Besides, internet sites and social media provide a platform for those who advertise their options with news updates to find similar-minded companions (Agoramoorthy and Hsu
123
J Relig Health
2011). Another sensational suicide in Taiwan occurred in 2012. A woman in her 30s chatting to nine of her friends via Facebook concurrently inhaled the smoke from burning charcoal. While chatting, the victim said that her boyfriend refused to attend her birthday and the humiliation led to sad ending. Cases like this show the growing trend of suicide involving social media, especially the Facebook (Ruder et al. 2011).
Religious Views of Suicide Can teachings from religious scriptures change the mind-set of those who think about suicide? According to reports, suicide incidents are rare among people with robust religious faith (Zhang and Jin 1996; Eskin 2004). A study by Dervic et al. (2004) states that religious connection contributed to less suicidal tendency in depressed patients. The study also showed greater moral objections to suicide and lower aggression level in religiously inclined patients. Besides, the Bible clearly equals suicide to murder, so it is regarded as self-murder. Moreover, the influence of Christianity toward suicide has long been debated. For example, whether Protestants or Roman Catholics have high suicidal rate haunted sociologists ever since Durkheim (1897) published a report on this subject (Pescosolido and Georgiana 1989). Similarly, suicide is prohibited in Islamic religion. The topic of Islam and suicide has been reviewed by Lester (2006) who examined suicide rates in nations with largely Muslim population. Confucianism views death as evil, but not great evil; failure to follow morality is morally worse than death. Hence, it sees suicide neither acceptable nor commendable (Lo 1999). Likewise, Taoism views death as a relief so it does not condemn suicide. The purpose of life according to Buddhism is to end suffering in life. When Channa committed suicide, Buddha exonerated him; Channa was friend/servant of Buddha when he was prince Siddhartha. After he became a monk, Channa accompanied him. So experts believe that Buddha did not accept suicide, and he only pardoned Channa in a rare episode (Keown 1996). When another disciple Godhika died of suicide, Buddha talked against it and then blessed his firmness of purpose (Koshiro 1988). As a result, suicide has not been outrightly condemned in Buddhism. It could be the reason for monks sometimes committing suicide in an honorable way to protest against societal oppression. Such cases happened during the Vietnam War (King 2000). It also continues in Tibet when monks set themselves ablaze to voice their opposition to China’s occupation of their homeland (Lewis and Cusack 2014). Ethical issues involving suicide in Buddhism have also been discussed by Keown (1996).
Hindu Religious Opposition to Suicide The term suicide refers to Pranatyaga or Atmahatya in Sanskrit, meaning abandoning life force, which is discouraged in Hindu religion. Attaining a human body is rare and one gets it after numerous life forms based on past life karma (Pattnaik 2006). The Hindus believe that when one dies, the fallen body replaced by a new one. However, one can end rebirth (Samsara) when the true nature of the Brahman (ultimate reality underlying all phenomena) is fully realized. Such self-realization is called moksha or liberation; it may take one several lifetimes of spiritual practice to achieve it (Narayanan 2009). So, leaving human body in the right frame of mind is essential to pursue spiritual progress in future lives. The scripture Bhagavatam states that the last thought coming to mind at death may decide the course of next birth (Subramaniam 2012). Therefore, how a person dies is an important matter for all Hindus.
123
J Relig Health
The Manu-smriti (Laws of Manu) is an authoritative ancient Indian Hindu rule book, and it prohibits ritualistic offerings to departed souls through suicide (Doniger 2000). Similarly, Yama-smriti states that the bodies of those who died of suicide should be dishonored. The Adi-parva part of Mahabharata states that those who died of suicide cannot reach heavenly worlds (Rajagopalachari 2010). Likewise, the Garuda-purana states that those who died of suicide and other violent death could become ghosts (Chaturvedi 2002). The Puranas (meaning ancient) are renowned scriptures, and they narrate 14 different worlds or realms of the perceptible Universe. Seven are lower than the human realm, while six others are higher (Chaturvedi 2000). The planet Earth or Bhuloka is placed in the middle. The upper realms include Bhuvarloka (atmospheric realm with Pitriloka or Pretaloka, the departed souls’ world), Svarloka (celestial realm), Maharloka (realm of greatness with Devaloka or mansion of the Gods), Janarloka (realm of creativity for liberated mortals), Tapoloka (realm of austerity) and Satyaloka or Brahmaloka (the highest realm of truth). The lower seven worlds or hell, also called Naraka (underworld) include Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala and Patala. The term Naraka has been widely used in the Vedas (Chaturvedi 2000). The text Arthasastra strictly prohibits suicide (Chaturvedi 2002). It states that those who commit suicide should be barred from cremation rites and ritualistic offerings (Rangarajan 1987). Furthermore, if any relatives perform funeral rites to them, they should be deprived of their own funeral rites when they die. The above scriptural views evidently show that human life is greatly valued in Hindu religion to maintain peace, prosperity and social order in society.
Occasional Religious Approval of Suicide Keeping the principles of euthanasia, the Hindu religion allows in rare context a quick end to those suffering from incurable/painful diseases. In such cases, suicide can be done by firmly following community rules. The only method to be adopted is fasting (prayopavesa). Chemical drugs, tools and injections are prohibited. The Laws of Manu allow death through fasting for ascetics from groups of priests and kings. But they must announce their intention and allow community intervention when offered. Similarly, the term Samadhi-marana is applied when a person reached death while meditating and by avoiding food and water (Coward et al. 1989). Kathasruti Upanisad states that monks who acquired full insight may end their lives through great journey, starvation, drowning and fire (Schrader 1912). The great journey (mahdprasthdna) refers to long walking to death in the wilderness. Mahaprasthanika-parva narrates the Pandava’s journey toward Himalayas (Ganguli 2013). Pandava referred to the five recognized sons of the King Pandu, namely Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. When they walked to reach the mythical Mount Meru, all died with the exception of Yudhisthira, who ultimately reached the mount (Rajagopalachari 2010).
Ancient Cultural Practice of Sati The phrase Sati originates from the Hindu goddess Sati, also known as Dakshayani. She is the first consort of Lord Shiva; second is Parvati, the reincarnated form of Sati. Hindu devotees can pick from a variety of 330 million deities to worship, and this huge number is
123
J Relig Health
just a symbol for the limitless forms by which the divine makes itself accessible to all. According to mythology, Sati wanted to marry Shiva, but her father, Daksha, refused. In order to find a suitable groom, he organized a gathering of grooms and in which Sati was to throw a garland and marry the one who caught it. It is called Swayamvara (self-choice) ceremony and it existed in ancient India (Vishwanath 1917). Daksha invited all except Shiva. But, Sati prayed to Shiva, who not only came, but also caught the garland. So, Daksha agreed to the marriage. Then, he organized a ceremony of sacrificial fire and invited all gods and goddesses except Shiva since Daksha’s intention was to insult him. Unable to bear the rudeness inflicted on her husband, Sati invoked fire inside of her using yogic powers and burnt to death. The tradition of Sati involved widow burning during husbands’ funeral fire. It is to show the devotion to husbands and to uphold their honor (Hawley 1994). Although it came to light in 510 AD, it is not clear how many women died of it. A report by Hardgrave (1998) states that about 575 women died of it in Bengal region alone in 1823. Some scholars consider that by committing suicide, faithful wives would reach the realm where their deceased husbands wait for them (Stietencron 1967). But, the Bhagavatam in contrast states that even Gods inhabiting the upper heavenly realms wish to be on Earth with human body to work toward enlightenment. (Subramaniam 2012). The Isavasya Upanishad goes a step further and states that for those who forget to use the body and mind to progress spiritually, they are in a way committing suicide of their souls. Therefore, it is evident that scriptures do not mandate suicide. Even in the case of Sati, the husband did not die, and he was only insulted by the father-in-law. The brutal burning of women nonetheless was legally banned in 1929, and the odd custom has not returned to haunt the Hindu society since then.
Ritualistic Offerings to Departed Souls The death ritual is important in Hindu religion. Hindus in general believe that if offerings are not given to departed souls, they hang around between worlds and haunt them as ghosts. The Garuda-purana provides exceptional help to carry out rituals for those who died unnaturally, which is called Narayaṇ-bali (Chaturvedi 2002). The ritual must be performed only in few specific sites such as sacred river banks, under cow sheds and in temples of Lord Krishna. Sacred utterance in Sanskrit must be used while giving offerings. The ritual covers a list that include death by fasting, burning, falling, drowning, mugging, robbery, snake bite, animal attack, lightning, curse, cholera, murder and suicide.
Merits of Death at Revered Sites Some texts talk about the significance of death at revered sites. Rig Veda mentions that those who abandon their bodies in meeting place of sacred rivers namely Ganges and Yamuna may attain immortality. The Salya-parva, which is the ninth book of Mahabharata, states that those who abandon their bodies at Prthudaka (presently Pehoa) on the northern bank of River Sarasvati after repeating Vedic chants shall not be troubled by death again (Rajagopalachari 2010). The River Sarasvati has been mentioned in several ancient scriptures. Historical evidence shows that the Harappan civilization thrived along
123
J Relig Health
Fig. 2 The confluence of rivers Bhagirathi and Alaknanda in Devprayag (Uttarakhand state, India) to form the holy River Ganges (photograph courtesy of the Uttarakhand Culture and Tourism)
Sarasvati. The climate change and tectonic movements in the region triggered the extinction of River Sarasvati around 1900 BC (Kalyanaraman 2008). The Anusasana-parva part of Mahabharata states that a person who knows Vedic chants, understands the ephemeral nature of body and dies through fasting in the Himalayas shall reach the highest heaven, Brahmaloka (Kane 1958). Also, the Kurma-purana states that those who die in the Ganges shall reach heaven (Tagare 2014). The Padmapurana states that whoever dies by hanging the head down over fire and drinks its flames shall stay in heaven for many years and then reborn as an agnihotrin, the one who carries out fire rituals (Deshpande 2014). Rivers are considered sacred in Hinduism (Warrier 2014; Agoramoorthy 2015). The convergence of religiously noteworthy rivers is known as Prayag or confluence (Fig. 2). It is praised in Rig Veda. The Padma-purana states that if someone dies knowingly or unknowingly in the River Ganges will reach heaven. Similarly, the Skanda-purana states that those who die in Kashi (also called Varanasi) will not suffer the sin of suicide and will get desired objects in next life. Similarly, the Linga-purana states that for those who commit suicide at Kurukshetra (also called Dharmakshetra, meaning holy place) may attain good deeds in the afterlife (Shastri 2014).
Conclusion The Hindu devotees often believe that human life is incomplete without bathing in the sacred Ganges (Parker 2003; Agoramoorthy 2015). So the river water symbolizes liberation of soul from the cycle of birth and death. Water is also associated with Lord Vishnu, who is believed to float on the infinite water. In order to echo the divine implication allied with rivers, scriptures mention that those who die there can progress spiritually even in the afterlife. But, one cannot take such interpretation at face value to choose suicide as a way to redeem sins and to reach heaven or to avoid rebirth on fast track. Finding a shortcut to end one’s precious life through suicide at a holy site is therefore not encouraged in Hindu religion. Therefore, Swami Vivekananda said, “To believe blindly is to degenerate the
123
J Relig Health
human soul. Be an atheist if you want, but do not believe in anything unquestioningly” (Bodhasarananda 2007). Acknowledgments This research was supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan (ROC) through a grant (MOST103-2632-E-127-001). Tajen University’s Research Center for Happiness Science and Technology extended additional support for this research. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Human or Animal Rights Statement This paper did not involve the participation of humans or animals. Informed Consent This paper does not involve any informed consent.
References Agoramoorthy, G. (2011). Are women with mental illness and the mentally challenged adequately protected in India? Indian Journal of Medical Research, 133, 552–554. Agoramoorthy, G. (2014). Spiritual seekers and gurus in contemporary Hindu society. Society, 51, 558–561. Agoramoorthy, G. (2015). Sacred rivers: Their spiritual significance in Hindu religion. Journal of Religion and Health, 54, 1080–1090. Agoramoorthy, G., & Chakraborty, C. (2015). India’s budget reduction and AIDS initiatives. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 15(6), 636. Agoramoorthy, G., & Hsu, M. J. (2011). Suicide in Taiwan’s society. Journal for General Social Issues, 1, 137–150. Appleby, L. (1989). Near death experience. BMJ, 298, 976–977. Bodhasarananda, S. (2007). The complete works of Swami Vivekananda. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama. Bordereau, C., Robert, A., Van Tuyen, V., & Peppuy, A. (1997). Suicidal defensive behavior by frontal gland dehiscence in Globitermes sulphureus Haviland soldiers (Isoptera). Insectes Sociaux, 44(3), 289– 297. Bourgeois, M. (1987). Are there animal models of suicidal behavior? Psychologie Medicale, 19, 739–740. Chaturvedi, B. K. (2000). Vishnu Purana. Delhi: Diamond books. Chaturvedi, B. K. (2002). Garuda Purana. Delhi: Diamond books. Coward, H. G., Lipner, J., & Young, K. K. (1989). Hindu ethics: Purity, abortion, and euthanasia. New York: SUNY Press. Daube, D. (1972). The linguistics of suicide. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1, 387–437. deCatanzaro, D. (1980). Human suicide: A biological perspective. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(2), 265–272. Dervic, K., Oquendo, M. A., Grunebaum, M. F., Ellis, S., Burke, A. K., & Mann, J. J. (2004). Religious affiliation and suicide attempt. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(2303), 2308. Deshpande, N. A. (2014). Padma Purana. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Doniger, W. (2000). The laws of Manu. Delhi: Penguin. Durkheim, E. (1897). Le suicide. Paris: Felix Alcan. Ehrlich, P. R. (2000). Human natures: Genes, cultures and the human prospect. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Eskin, M. (2004). The effects of religious versus secular education on suicide ideation and suicidal attitudes in adolescents in Turkey. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39, 536–542. Ganguli, K. M. (2013). The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa book 17 Mahaprasthanika Parva. Delhi: Spastic Cat Press. Hardgrave, R. L. (1998). The representation of Sati: Four eighteenth century etchings by Baltazard Solvyns. Bengal Past and Present, 117, 57–80. Hawley, J. S. (1994). Sati, the blessing and the curse: The burning of wives in India. New York: Oxford University Press. Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2014). World happiness report. New York: Columbia University. Institute, S. A. S. (2000). SAS/ETS software: Changes and enhancements. Release 8.1. Cary, North Carolina: SAS Institute. Jagannathan, S. (2015). Hinduism: An introduction. Mumbai: Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd.
123
J Relig Health Johnson, C. J., & McGee, M. G. (1998). How different religions view death and afterlife. Philadelphia: Charles Press Publishers. Kalyanaraman, S. (2008). Vedic river Saraswati and Hindu civilization. Delhi: Aryan Books International. Kane, P. V. (1958). History of Dharmasastra. Ancient and mediaeval religious and civil law. Delhi: Nobel Press. Keown, D. (1996). Buddhism and suicide: The case of Channa. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 3, 83–91. King, S. B. (2000). They who burned themselves for peace: Quaker and Buddhist self-Immolators during the Vietnam War. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 20, 127–150. King, B. (2014). How animals grieve. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Koshiro, T. (1988). Shi no oboegaki (Memoranda on death). Bukkyo shiso, 10, 465–475. Leming, M., & Dickinson, G. E. (2010). Understanding dying, death, and bereavement. Boston: Wadsworth publishing. Lester, D. (2006). Suicide and Islam. Archives of Suicide Research, 10, 77–97. Lewington, A. (2012). Ancient trees: Trees that live for a thousand year. New York: Batsford Ltd. Lewis, J. R., & Cusack, C. M. (2014). Sacred suicide. Farnham: Ashgate. Lo, P. C. (1999). Confusian ethics death with dignity and its contemporary relevance. Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics, 19, 313–333. McMillan, F. D. (2005). Mental health and well-being in animals. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Narayanan, V. (2009). Hinduism. New York: Rosen Classroom. NCRB. (2014). Accidental deaths and suicide in India 2013. Delhi: National Crimes Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs. Nydegger, R. (2014). Suicide and mental health. Connecticut: Greenwood. Parker, V. (2003). The Ganges: And other Hindu holy places. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Library. Pattnaik, D. (2006). Myth = mithya: A handbook of Hindu mythology. Delhi: Penguin. Pescosolido, B. A., & Georgiana, S. (1989). Durkheim, suicide and religion. American Sociological Review, 54, 33–48. Pool, R. (2009). Why do people die that way? New Scientist, 201, 37–39. Preti, A. (2011). Do animals commit suicide? Does it matter? Crisis, 32(1), 1–4. Rajagopalachari, C. (2010). Mahabharata. Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Ramsden, E., & Wilson, D. (2010). The nature of suicide: Science and the self-destructive animal. Endeavour, 34, 21–24. Rangarajan, L. N. (1987). Kautilya: The Arthashastra. Delhi: Penguin. Ruder, T. D., Hatch, G. M., Ampanozi, G., Thali, M. J., & Fischer, N. (2011). Suicide announcement on Facebook. Crisis, 32, 280–282. Schrader, F. O. (1912). The minor Upaniṣads, critically edited for the Adyar library Theosophical society by F Otto Schrader. Madras: The Adyar library. Shastri, J. L. (2014). Linga Purana. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Subramaniam, K. (2012). Srimad Bhagavatam. Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Stietencron, H. (1967). Suicide as a religious institution. Bharatiya Vidya, 27, 7–24. Tagare, G. V. (2014). Kurma Purana. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Vishwanath, P. (1917). Ancient royal Hindu marriage customs. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 47, 31–36. Warrier, S. (2014). Kamandalu: The seven sacred rivers of Hinduism. London: Mayur University. Zhang, J., & Jin, S. (1996). Determinants of suicide ideation: A comparison of Chinese and American college students. Adolescence, 31, 451–467.
123
