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E ~ D , Vo~ 45, No. 1

[ ] Yes [ ] No 20. H o w often did your cooperating teacher use observation forms or keep records concerning the students' progress in the learning process? (This item should be answered by those who checked option "Yes" of item 19.) [ ] Rarely [ ] Frequently [ ] Always

checked option "Yes" of item 21.) [ ] Rarely [ ] Frequently [ ] Always 23. Did your cooperating teacher help the students attain mastery learning of the subjects in his or her classes? [ ] Yes [ ] No

21. Did your cooperating teacher discuss the learning outcomes with his or her students, either individually or in groups at the end of teaching and learning activities? [1 Yes [1 No

24. How did your cooperating teacher evaluate students' academic achievement? [ ] By using criterion-referenced tests, [ ] By using norm-referenced tests. [ ] Other:

22. How often did your cooperating teacher discuss the learning outcomes with his or her students, either individually or in groups at the end of teaching and learning activities? (This item should be answered by those who

25. If you have other opinions that are significant for your point of view concerning the classroom activities of your cooperating teacher with regard to the individualization of instruction, please explain here briefly.

The Utilization of Instructional T e c h n o l o g y in T u r k e y

educational leader and a stabilizing force for the developing countries in the Balkans and in the Turkic Republics in central Asia. The combination of its leadership position and the availability of new technologies makes access to information highly desirable for Turkey.

by Servet Bayram and Barbara Seels [] Turkey, which is located southeast of Europe bordering the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black seas, serves as a geographical bridge between Europe and western Asia. Approximately 65 million people live in Turkey, a country with about twice the land area and population of California. The literacy rate is about 90% (85% for females, 95% for males). There are about 14 million students in school at all levels from preschool through higher education. The 57 universities, including the open university, serve almost 1 million students. In addition, there are about 25,000 graduate students studying in the United States and Europe, most of whom have government scholarships. There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present. The country currently sees itself in a key position to act as an

The government is instrumental in helping countries that have become independent of the Soviet Union, many of which share ethnic origins and culture with the Turks. While they were part of the Soviet Union, these new republics used the Cyrillic alphabet for instruction; however, with Turkey's advice they have adopted the Latin alphabet for instruction. To assist in education and communication, Turkey is sending educational materials in the Latin alphabet to many of these countries. The Turkish Ministry of Education and the Higher Education Council have proposed a project to use a satellite distribution system to beam education programs to Turks in other countries. The Turkish International Television Channel is beaming educational programs to the Turkic Republics in central Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

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INTERNATIONALREVIEW Access to Mass Communication in Turkey

While m a n y may think of Turkey as a developing country, in reality the use of media there is fairly sophisticated. According to the Constitution of the Turkish Republic, all radio and television broadcasts were under a state monopoly. Today, however, a gradually increasing number of private television and radio stations are broadcasting in Turkey by permission of the government. Work on constitutional amendments and n e w laws concerning the legal establishment of private stations is complete (Republic of Turkey, December 1995). Mass media in Turkey also includes newspapers and periodicals.

Radio. There are 15 AM and 94 FM stations. Between 90 and 100% of the population receives educational and cultural programs by radio. The Voice of Turkey broadcasts from the capital city of Ankara in 16 languages to the northeastern part of the United States, Asia, North Africa, the Balkans, and Europe. Television. In all, 357 stations broadcast six government channels, including one educational channel. Turkish Radio Television (TRT) broadcasts to North Africa, Europe, and to the other side of the Asian continent. At least six of the new republics formed from the Soviet Union are Turkish in culture and language. TRT beams programs via satellite to Azerbaijan and to other Turkic republics in central Asia.

Telephone. Speedy developments in the field of trade and extensive use of computers have given rise to the need for speedier forms of communication in addition to the postal telegraphic, and telephone services. This phenomenon has resulted in the use of car phones, computerized data systems, cordless phones and video conference systems.

News Agencies. Most of the 12 news agencies in Turkey have computerized communications access and news units with cameras. These news agencies are connected to the world through satellite and underground cable sys-

tems including a sea bed fiber optic system. The first Turkish communications satellite (TURKSTAT) was launched in 1993.

Newspapers andPeriodicals. The total circulation of newspapers is not large: 3 million for a population of 65 million. At least 9 of the newspapers are national and have an average daffy circulation of more than 100,000. However, aside from the nationally circulated newspapers there are more than 700 local newspapers published either daily or periodically. The daily circulation of these local papers varies between 500 and 1000. Publication of magazines has increased because of advanced technology. In recent years, many more specialized periodicals have been published. For those interested in computers, Byte, MacWorld Tiirkiye, and Macintosh Diinyas~ (World) are now available in Turkish.

Access to Computer Technology

The availability of computer resources is indicated by use of computers and the Internet. Evidence of such use is provided by sales figures and time on networks.

Computers. Table I illustrates areas of sales for 100 computer companies in Turkey in 1993 (Interpro Yaymcllik Ara§tlrma ve Organizasyon Hizmetleri A. ~.).

Table t [ ] Sales of Computer Companies: Distribution in 1993

Type of Sale Hardware Software Equipment Services (including technical, educational, and consulting)

Percentageof Total Sales 72% 12% 13% 3%

Adaptedfroma publicationofInterproYaymahk Ara~tirmave OrganizasyonHizmetleriA.$., 1994.

114

~ ,

The Internet. Internet users are increasing quickly in Turkey. In 1994, only a few universities had access to the Internet. Currently, most of the universities, military academies, government branches, technical institutions, private companies, high schools, and newspapers have access to the Internet. More than 50 Turkish universities and institutions have home pages on the World Wide Web (WWW). Some universities, such as Bo~azi~i University, offer training seminars on the Internet. The n u m b e r of m o n t h l y requests for use of the WWW server at Bo~azi~i University in Istanbul increased from below 1,000 in July 1994 to above 12,000 in December 1994 (Bo~azi~i University C o m p u t e r Center, January 1995). At A n k a r a ' s Bilkent U n i v e r s i t y P r e p a r a t o r y School, where about 1,000 students attend, the WWW was accessed 4,659 times during the last t w o weeks of January 1996 (Bilkent University Preparatory School, 1996).

Diffuslonof InstructionalTechnology In addition to sales of technology and use of networks, diffusion of technology, especially as it relates to instruction, is evident from increasing use of conferences for professional development in the area of instructional technology and from increasing attention to technology in educational institutions. Conferences. The Internet is becoming a popular topic in the Turkish universities. Bilkent University organized the first Internet Symposium in Ankara in November 1995. Workshops, roundtable discussions, and traditional and electronic papers were presented in Turkish during the convention. The First Sympo-

vo~ 4s, No. I

sium on C o m p u t e r Networking was held on the Bo~azi~i University campus in May 1996. Sessions were conducted in both Turkish and English. Academicians and researchers in various fields whose common aim is to continue their research with the aid of Apple/Macintosh computers convene every year in May at a different Turkish university for an interchange of theory and practice from different disciplines of science. The first convention, which was held in 1990, was intended to serve as a vehicle to disseminate information about exemplary applications and research and to exchange ideas about the appropriate use of Macintosh systems to enhance learning, productivity, and quality. With the support of Bilkom Company, the Academic Computing Macintosh Environment (ACIME) conference has become a t~adition. Each year the proceedings are published jointly by the host university and Apple Computer Bilkom Company (Academic computing in Macintosh environment, 1992; 1993; 1995; Kaftano~lu, G6kler, Arikan, & Konukseven, 1991; Kaylan & Eyler, 1990). Tables two t h r o u g h four, which are based on the published proceedings of the ACIME meetings, elaborate on the diffusion of information technology among the universities. Table 2 shows a marked increase in the attendance of people from Turkish universities, and a slight increase in the number of international visitors at ACIME conventions between 1990 and 1995. Table 3 gives evidence of interest in different innovation categories by showing the change in presentation topics over the years. In 1990, most of the research focused on the engineering and computer science areas. After a period of five years, researchers focused on

Table 2 [] ACIME Convention Attendance from Turkishand InternationalUnlversltles No. of Attendees From Turkish universities From international universities Total

1990 (1st meeting)

1992 (3rd meeting)

1995 (6th meeting)

3

9

16

1 4

2 11

3 33

115

INTERNA11ONALREVIE'W Table 3 [] PresentationTopics at the ACIME Conference by Years Research Subjects Education Engineering Computer Science General Science Humanities Medicine Industry/Economy Total Research Papers

1990 3 6 6 -2 1 -18

1992

(17%) (33%) (33%)

1 6 6 3 2 m 1 19

(11%) (6%)

1995

(5%) (32%) (32%) (15%) (11%) (5%)

3 3 6 5 5 6 5 33

TOTAL

(10%) (9%) (18%) (15%) (15%) (18%) (15%)

7 15 18 8 9 7 6 70

Table 4 [] Types of Studies and TheirDistributionfor 70 Research Papers Type

1990 Theory Practice

1992 Theory Practice

1995 Theory Practice

Design Development Utilization Management Evaluation Total

6 8 5 2 3 24 (58%)

5 7 5 1 1 19 (38%)

6 14 15 3 2 40 (40%)

2 4 5 3 3 17 (42%)

3 5 11 6 6 31 (62%)

5 10 24 10 11 60 (60%)

n = 70 pal:~13

other subjects such as general science, medicine, humanities and industry. The number given first in each cell indicates the number of papers on that topic. The numbers in parentheses indicate the percent of papers devoted to that topic. Over five years, 70 papers related to instructional technology were presented at ACIME conventions. The research presentations generally were intended to serve as vehicles to disseminate information about developments and applications and to exchange ideas and experiences. The papers give evidence that the studies are becoming more elaborate and that Turkish academic applications of technology seem promising for the future. Before the first convention, only two Turkish universities were members of the Apple European University Consortium. Today this number has increased to about ten. The topics of the 70 papers were analyzed using the Seels and Richey (1994) domains of instructional technology: design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation. Each

domain represents a knowledge base that encompasses theory and practice. The papers were found to be distributed unequally among the domains and theory and practice. According to Table 4, the greatest increase was in papers about utilization in practice. Table 4 also substantiates the increase in presentations devoted to practice while the number of presentations about theory decreased. Technology in Universities. Most universities have computer rooms for teaching computer studies. However, because the cost of these facilities is often prohibitive, use is usually quite restricted. Video and audio cassette players, and record players are available to faculty. Many universities, and even some teachers, have their own collections of sound tapes that are used particularly in the teaching of foreign languages and music. Most have television sets and video cassette players. Some also have video cameras.

116 There are not enough overhead projectors, slide projectors, film projectors, and video cassette players to meet the needs of students and faculty. Overhead transparencies and slides are not used very often during lessons. In the universities, some teachers never use any technological media; although others use it quite often. There are a few places, such as Anadolu University in Eski~ehir and Middle East Technical University in Ankara, where more extensive use of instructional technology is possible. The Biikent University Preparatory School (BUPS) is a good example of an organization where technology for instruction is very advanced for Turkey. BUPS is an English medium school that prepares students who desire a liberal and rigorous international education. The purpose of such schools is to give students competency in the English Language. Attendance at an English medium school follows high school but precedes university study. The school library has more than 10,300 volumes and access to the collection of 150,000 books and 2000 journals in the main university library, in addition to substantial music and art collections. The main library, which uses the Library of Congress cataloging system and a computerized catalog, is increasing its collection by about 30,000 volumes a year. BUPS staff can also make use of the library of Higher Education Council of Turkey, which subscribes to 12,000 journals and is located within walking distance of BUPS. The school also has extensive computer facilities based on a networked Macintosh system. BUPS is connected to Bilkent University Computer Center which has six high-performance file servers with 70 high-graphics-capability workstations and 300 terminals interfacing with some of the more than 1,200 PCs distributed throughout the university (Bilkent University Preparatory School, January 1996).

Diffusion a n d Utilization Problems in Turkish Education

The educational system of Turkey is mostly centralized. Centralization is the degree to which power and control in a system are con-

E~D, Vo~45, No.

centrated in the hands of relativity few individuals. Rogers (1995) states that centralization is usually negatively associated with innovativeness because the more centralized an organization is, the less innovative that organization tends to be. Relatively few individuals in such a system possess the power, status, or technical experience to adopt an innovation. According to Center & Blackbourn (1992), many modern nations organize their schools on a centralized bureaucratic pattern. Centralization and bureaucratic patterns have produced formalization and lack of interconnectedness in Turkey. The education system continues to have tradition of rote learning and memorization, much to the dismay of many Turkish academics who have studied abroad and try to encourage class discussion, problem solving, and divergent thinking among their students. Teachers are hampered by overcrowded classes and heavy teaching loads in their endeavors to adopt innovative pedagogy. As a result, the prevalent model of education is one that accepts the memorization and recall of facts. Little emphasis is placed on creative problem solving or application of information in new and different contexts (McIsaac, 1992). Students passively receive what the teachers select for them, which comes primarily from school textbooks. The students get almost no practice in searching for information themselves or in solving problems. To a large extent, talk and chalk still rule in the Turkish school. Teaching is still based on textbooks; texts receive almost all the attention in the schools. The illustrations and colors in the books are not used as sources of information. Except for a few university libraries and large city libraries, almost all the books in school libraries are out of date (I.F. San, personal communication, May 22, 1995). To Turkish educators, instructional and computer technologies are the practical applications of scientific knowledge. It is commonly thought that Turkey needs technology to help it to catch up with post-industrial societies, and that it is currently about ten years behind the industrialized world (Mdsaac, 1992). Turkey has not yet developed its own modern

~NTERNAnON~_R~EW technologies. It takes ten years or more for technology that is developed elsewhere to be applied in Turkey. Motivation to learn and use technologies varies to the extent that practical applications that will promote economic position or status are apparent (A. Pmar, personal communication, May 18, 1995). This is consistent with theory about characteristics of an innovation (Rogers, 1995). Most desirable jobs require a scientific background, at least one foreign language, and knowledge of computers. Although computer networks offer the greatest opportunity for improving access to information in the classroom, there are many problems still to be overcome. First, providing computer networks for education requires establishing an infrastructure through a large capital outlay. Such funding is hard to obtain given the economic situation in Turkey. The per capita income is approximately $1,500 per year; in 1994 there was an 85% inflation rate. The energies of university faculties are directed toward maintaining service courses with large enrollments rather than towards implementing innovative uses of instructional technology. There is a considerable lag between the introduction of computer-based tools and their actual integration into university teaching and research (I.F. San, personal communication, May 22, 1995). More academicians are recognizing that personal computers increase productivity and quality (A. Pmar, personal communication, May 18, 1995). Several problems are associated with the application of e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y in Turkey: maintenance, standardization, and quality of equipment; lack of. communication about technology, ineffective and inefficient .use of resources, inequitable distribution of technology, and insufficient attention to systematic curriculum development (Alkan, 1987; Aziz, 1987; and Balo~lu, 1990). Another problem arises from the strong tradition of face-to-face communication. Most people are skeptical of technologies that replace the teacher. There is some degree of technophobia (McIsaac, 1992). The Turkish educational model is cooperative rather than competitive. Learning styles and the work ethic emphasize individuals helping each other. The person who has the

117 most, whether it be knowledge or material possessions, has a duty to share it with others who have less. This cooperative work ethic has implications for the classroom as well as for studying. Homework and examinations are seen as cooperative activities. Often, pressure is put on the cleverest student to provide answers to others. The problems facing Turkey are systemic and involve economic, political, and social systems. There are several proposed solutions to these problems, some of which are administrative in nature. These proposed solutions will be discussed next.

Administrative Decentralization

Turkey is a member of the Center for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) which is a committee of the multinational Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The center supports research, promotes technological innovation in education, and fosters cooperation between member countries. At the 16th session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education in Istanbul, CERI (1989) suggested that all member countries promote decentralization policies for (a) effective and efficient low-cost instruction, (b) humanistic reasons, (c) diffusion of innovations, and (d) professional development. Bimber (1993; 1994) believes that less bureaucratic, hierarchical administration of schools will have salutary effects on public education. Decentralization is a common thread running through site-based management efforts, the school choice movement, the drive for teacher professionalism, "effective schools" theories, and attempts to establish independent, for-profit schools. According to Fantini and Gittell (1973), there are several types of decentralization including administrative, participative-program, political, and functional. Administrative decentralization involves the transfer of certain services to local areas while control remains at the top level. This type of decentralization assumes that all people participate in national development plans and that central government still monitors local ser-

118 vices. This participation leads to a process through which planners become aware of local needs and resources, and thus, workload is transferred from the capital city to local areas. Weiler (1989) calls this the "efficiency model" of decentralization, a means to enhance the efficiency of educational govemance and the cost-effectiveness of the educational system by both generating additional resources and deploying and managing available resources more effectively. For Turkey, administrative decentralization is a key educational and administrative policy to cope with fiscal shortages by utilizing regional resources better. There are several models for administrative decentralization. The authors believe that the two models most appropriate for Turkey are the collaborative model and privatization.

CoUaborativeModel. Bray (1994) introduced a model for collaboration through decentralization. This model is being implemented in Indonesia through a project called Community Participation in Planning and Management of Educational Resources (COPLANER). In the collaborative model some centralized authority is maintained while other authority is delegated to province and district level. Abdullah (1993) calls this integrated decentralization where the central office establishes core values, beliefs and goals for a school system which then acts as a service agency staffed by facilitators. A collaborative model is based on these assumptions: • Responsibilities are shared between central and local people. • Local planning is done by officials, teachers, and administrators. • Local resources are used to solve problems. • Supervision is done at the state level. • Implementation is done at the local level. • Central bureaucracy retains authority over curriculum. • Local authority raises the funding. The sharing of authority and assignment of responsibility must be clear, and division of authority is mutually decided. However, collaboration and coordination may

~ R ~ , Vol 45, NO. 'I

require extensive and continuous training. Moreover, nations and communities vary in their readiness and willingness to adopt decentralized approaches to educational decision making as well as in their ability to implement this model. The collaborative decentralization model has been implemented in Mongolia and some I~tin American countries with mixed success because of lack of experience in local governments (Winkler, 1994). The lesson from this case is that without appropriate design and administration (especially from central government) decentralization is likely to fail.

Privatization. This administrative model offers some options for solving economic problems in Turkish education. Privatization is one way of making space for non-governmental institutions to operate schools and school systems (Stuart, 1995). It is a form of financial resource for Turkish education. On one hand, privatization is a key educational and administrative policy for coping with fiscal shortages by utilizing regional resources better. On the other hand, it is also a key to obtaining some international funds through implementing World Bank and International Monetary Fund recommendations. Increasingly, the strongest external pressure for privatization in Turkey comes from international development agencies. For example, funds from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization pilot projects and the German Society for Joint Technical Projects might be increased for ~ukurova and Ege Universities if privatization is a d o p t e d . In the United States and Latin America, privatization has been implemented by operating with a mix of public and private funds and a mix of centralized and decentralized models of administration (Stuart, 1995). With privatization, new agencies can act more flexibly and rapidly, and they can preserve and extend their spheres of influence. For privatization to work, a country needs strong political interest groups, effective legislative institutions, and stable political party systems. In the absence of a countervailing power that can restrain centralizing tendencies, the various government and quasi-government agencies tend to act as special interest groups. They

119

INIERNA'IIONALREVIEW

may do so, however, to preserve and advance their own interests rather than the interests of others in society. In some former Soviet republics, especially central Turkic republics, public schools have been handed over to non-governmental organizations because of lack of personnel and finances. These organizations, originating in Turkey, are actually religiously oriented foundations relying on individual donations only. Curricula are provided and strictly enforced by the central governments with a quiet bit of traditional communist influence in their contents. Thus, centralization and decentralization are both used. Many people in these republics believe that this is an effective combination of administrative models (A. Bukharan-Ushurma, personal communication, March 19, 1996). Parents often want to register their children in these schools because of the high quality of education in many basic areas, such as mathematics and science (IV[. Klyuchevsky, personal communication, March 19, 1996).

nel) could be utilized better, and children could have more opportunities to learn. Currently, there are attendance problems in both high school and university settings. Technology could be a partial solution because it can increase motivation and monitoring. Ba~kurt, Saka, Zayim, and Yfldmm (1995) discuss instructional technology problems in Turkish medical schools. They conclude that unsatisfactory laboratory and hospital facilities, increasing numbers of students, and deficiencies in academic staff are the main problems affecting medical education in Turkish universities. They also state that through the use of multimedia technology a limited number of academicians might be successful in training a large group of students. In 1993, Sari and Lira stated that for improvement of the quality of educational programs in Turkey to occur, there is a need for team study. Instructional technology can facilitate collaborative learning and replicable instruction. The proper meaning of instructional technology seems to be one solution to educational problems in Turkey.

Instructional Technology Although forms of administrative decentralization can support diffusion of innovations related to instruction, they have the disadvantage of requiring philosophical and political consensus that may be difficult to achieve. Another way to decentralize is to provide instructional technology, which empowers many people by facilitating communication at many levels and across many organizations. Instructional technology includes both traditional media and newer means of delivery. It encompasses well-designed printed materials, videotapes, distance-education technologies, and c o m p u t e r - b a s e d instruction including interactive multimedia. All of these are appropriate for education in Turkey; some are used in secondary schools and universities already (Ulu~, 1994). Nevertheless, the use of traditional and newer technologies for instruction is not pervasive, especially at the K-12 level. If such technology was available in many settings, instruction could be improved, costs could lowered, resources (e.g. time, person-

Concluslon Turkey is making progress towards the goal of a well-educated populace that includes a cadre of highly educated professionals skilled with technology. However, economic constraints currently limit innovation in education. Three solutions to problems of diffusion are proposed: the collaborative model, privatization, and instructional technology. Collaborative and privatization models offer ways to solve utilization problems in Turkey because economic restrictions are the main reasons for lack of utilization. In the private schools of Turkey, diffusion of instructional technology is proceeding more effectively and efficiently than in the public schools because more resources are available in private schools. Because instructional technology provides cost-effective resources which can be decentralized, it affords a way of implementing innovations in education that are compatible with current philosophies. []

120 Dr. Servet Bayram is a graduate of the Program in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Pittsburgh and recently completed post-doctoral study at Indiana University. He is in the Faculty of Education at Bogazi~i University, Istanbul, Turkey. Dr. Barbara Seels is an Associate Professor in the Program in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Pittsburgh.

Note: Since this article was completed, there is new evidence of the rapid diffusion of educational innovations in Turkey. For example, during 1996 the rate of publication of web pages about Turkish educational institutions increased from 50 to 100, and the number of private universities increased from 3 to 7. One of the goals of the Turkish private universities is to provide an electronic learning environment required for jobs or tasks such as marketing, business, advertising, medicine, and industry. From Rogers' (1995) point of view, the new interactive technologies like e-mail and the Intemet are unique as innovations in that they represent a means of linking students or institutions through computer-related technologies. In these new universities, the new interactive technologies such as online information tools, tutorials, simulations, and expert systems might allow participants to explore instructional strategies for problem-solving tasks and learning. The new communication technologies are rapidly spreading and are directly impacting the educational system in fundamental ways in Turkey.

References Abdullah, M.O. (1993). School-based management: Decentralization site based. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colombia University Teachers College, New York. Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment III Annual Conference. (1992, May 13-15). Eski~ehir, Turkey: Anadolu University Press. Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment Annual Conference. (1993, May 4-6). Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul University School of Communication Directory of Film Center and Printing House. Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment Annual Conference. (1995, May 25-27). Antalya, Turkey: Akdeniz University Press. A l k a n , C. (1987). A~ik6~retim, uzaktan e~itim sistemlerinin kar~la~ttrmah olarak incelenmesi (No. 157). Ankara, TLirkiye: Ankara Universitesi, E~itim BilimleriFakiiltesiYaymlan. Aziz, A. (1987). Elektronic yaymcilzkta teknolojik geli§melerin toplumsal etkileri. In Hzzh teknolojik de~ifim karfzsznda Tiirkiye: Analiz ve yapzlmas~ gerekenler: Siirekli Konferanslar No. 1. Istanbul, T(irkiye: Bogazi~i Universitesi.

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Balo~lu, A. (1990). Tiirkiye'de e~itim: Sorunlar ve declaim, yapzsal uyum 6nerileri. Ankara, Tfirkiye: TUSIAD. Ba~kurt, O.K. , Saka, O., Zayim, N. & Ylldmm, P. (1995, May). Etkile~imli tzp e~itimi. In Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment. Antalya, Tfirkiye: Akdeniz Universitesi. Bilkent University Preparatory School (1996, January). Homepage (January Version) Netscape. Available www : http://www.bups.bilkent.edu.tr/ Documentation/usage/index.html Bimber, B. (1994). The decentralization mirage: Comparing decision making arrangements in four high schools. Santa Monica, CA: Institute on Education and Training, RAND Corporation. Bimber, B. (1993). School decentralization: Lessonsfrom the study of bureaucracy. Santa Monica: CA: Institute on Education and Training, RAND Corporation. Bo~azi~i University Computer Center (1995, January). News Bulletin, p. 13. Istanbul, Turkey. Bray, M. (1994, March). Community financing of schools in less developed countries: Rationales, mechanisms and policy implications. Paper presented at the Conference of Comparative and International Educational Society, San Diego, CA. Center, D.B. & Blackbourn, J.M. (1992) Monopolistic educational bureaucracy (MEB) : The dis-ease destroying public education. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI). (1989). Information technologies in education: The quest for quality software. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Center for Research on Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 358 571) Fantini, M. & Gittell, M. (1973). Decentralization: Achieving reform. NY: Praeger Publishers. Interpro Yayrncflzk Ara§hrma ve Organizasyon Hizmefleri A.~. (1994). Ilk 100 bilgisayar ~irketi ve 1993 b i l g i s a y a r p a z a n ara§tzrmasz. Istanbul, TLirkiye:Author. Kaftano~lu, B. , G6kler, M.I., Arikan, M.A.S. & Konukseven, E.I. (Eds.) (1991). Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment If. Ankara, Turkey: Middle East Technical University Press. Kaylan, A.R. & Eyler, M.A. (Eds.). (1990). Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment. Istanbul, Turkey: Bo~azi~i University Computer Center and Anadolu Matbaacilik. McIsaac, M.S. (1992). Networks for knowledge: The Turkish electronic classroom in the twenty-first century. Educational Media International, 29(3), 16570. Republic of Turkey (1995, December). Homepage. (December Version) Netscape. Available www : http://turkey, org/turkey/r-media,html Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th Ed.). NY: The Free Press. San, I.F., & Lira, A.T. (1993, May). Development of an integrated media prototype for language instruction. Paper presented at the 4th Annual Meeting of

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the Academic Computing in Macintosh Environment. Istanbul University, Turkey. Seels, B.B. & Richey, R.C. (1994). Instructional technology: The definition and domains of the field. Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. Stuart, R. (1995, September, 24). Privatization proposal rocks Clearfield County. Pittsburgh PostGazette, p. A-18. Ulu~, F. (1994). Distance education in the Turkish secondary school. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(4), 116-119. Weiler, H.N. (1989). Education and power: The politics of educational decentralization in comparative perspective. (Tech. Rep. of the Center for Educational

Research at Stanford). CA" Stanford University School of Education. Winkler, D. (1994). The design and administration of intergovernmental transfer: Fiscal decentralization in Latin America (Discussion paper). Washington, DC:

The World Bank.

Turkey's First International Distance Education Symposium

By Karen L. Murphy [] The Tfirkiye First International Distance Education Symposium was held in Ankara from November 12-15, 1996. Sponsored by the Film, Radio, Television Education Directorate (FRTED) in the Ministry of National Education, the Symposium attracted 900 distance education practitioners and researchers from 15 countries. The 19 international and 55 Turkish presentations covered a wide range of topics: Theoretical Dimensions of Distance Education, Distance Education Problems and Solutions, The Future of Interactive Distance Education in Turkey, and New Alternatives in Distance Education Systems. Participants received the 711-page book and a CD-ROM of the proceedings, along with a separate book of abstracts. In addition to paper presentations in both Turkish and English with simultaneous translation were poster presentations and information technology exhibits. The keynote speakers (Dr. Cevat Alkan of Ankara University, Dr. Yilmaz Bi~y~iker~en of Anadolu University, Dr. Chere Campbell Gibson of the University of

Wisconsin, Dr. B6rje Holmberg of the Fernfiniversitat in Germany, and Dr. Marina Stock McIsaac of Arizona State University) provided thought-provoking views of the diversity of distance education. The Symposium Secretariate demonstrated the best of Turkish hospitality. Symposium registration fees w e r e waived for the p a p e r presenters, who also received full accommodation at the new Ba~kent O~retmenevi, a combination hotel and conference center. Turkey has two distance education systems---one at the secondary level through the FRTED at the Ministry of National Education, and the other at the university level through Anadolu University. The First International Distance Education Symposium was significant for its cooperation between these two systems. I feel particularly fortunate to have worked with both distance education systems at different times. My first experience was in Eski§ehir in 1987-88 at Anadolu University's O p e n Education Faculty, which provides distance education in higher education throughout the country (Murphy, 1989). This year-long experience involved my doctoral research, an examination of first-year distance learners' attributions for success and failure. Next, in 1992-93 1 spent several months at the FRTED in Ankara as a consultant on a World Bank project, the National Education Development Project. That year signified the beginning of the Open Education High School, which provides distance education in secondary education t h r o u g h o u t the country (Ulu~, i994). The S y m p o s i u m was a rare o p p o r t u n i t y to observe the exemplary teamwork of the Symposium Secretariate and to meet old friends and make new friends in the international distance education arena. []

References Murphy, K.L. (1989). Turkey's open education policy. Educational Technology Research and Development, 37(2), 122-125.

Ulu~, F. (1994). Distance education in the Turkish secondary education system. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(4), 116-119.