Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 748 DOI 10.1007/s12517-016-2778-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Assessment of water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes: a case study of Başköy springs (Ağlasun/Burdur/Turkey) Fatma Aksever 1 & Ayşen Davraz 1 & Yaşar Bal 1

Received: 8 May 2015 / Accepted: 1 December 2016 / Published online: 13 December 2016 # Saudi Society for Geosciences 2016

Abstract It is important to know the quality of water resources for drinking, domestic and irrigation in the rural area. Because, in recent times, there has been increased demand for water due to population growth and intense agricultural activities, so, hydrogeochemical investigations come into prominence for the groundwater use. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate water quality of Başköy springs for both drinking and irrigation purposes. The geochemical processes and quality of springs were followed as seasonal in the study area. In view of geochemical classification, springs are Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type for both seasons. Comparison of geochemical data shows that majority of the spring samples are suitable for drinking water. On the other hand, chemical indexes of springs with various classifications were calculated for irrigation purposes. According to the classifications (electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, salinity hazard, percent sodium, sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, residual sodium bicarbonate, permeability index, potential salinity, soluble sodium percentage, magnesium ratio, and Kelly’s ratio), Başköy springs are suitable for irrigation purposes. However, water quality of Çaygözü spring is different the other springs due to the high electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids. Also, groundwater mineralization processes and rock–water interaction are controlled with bivariate diagrams of major elements.

* Fatma Aksever [email protected] Yaşar Bal [email protected] 1

Department of Geological Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey

Keywords Groundwater quality . Hydrochemistry . Drinking and irrigation . Başköy springs

Introduction Assessment of chemistry, geochemical processes, quality, classification, and sustainability of groundwater depend on the many factors and seasonal variation. So, the hydrochemical studies are responsible for managing and controlling of valuable groundwater resources. Due to the importance of aquifer system in the regional and national economy, fundamental hydrogeological patterns, such as groundwater hydrodynamics, hydrochemical characteristics, origins, and migration pathways of water masses, must be investigated (Hamed et al. 2011; Dassi 2011; Ben Moussa et al. 2009; Tarki et al. 2016). There have been various studies on assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes (Gowd 2005; Raju 2007; Kumar et al. 2007; Aghazadeh and Mogaddam 2010; Kaka et al. 2011; Al-Tabbal and Al-Zboon 2012; Nag and Das 2014; Kumar et al. 2014; Dassi 2011). In addition, numerous authors have reported about hydrochemical evaluations of groundwater (Jeevanandam et al. 2007; Arumugam and Elangovan 2009; Bahar and Reza 2010; Aghazadeh and Mogaddam 2011). There are many springs that are available in the study area as groundwater resources. These springs form the major source of water supply for drinking purposes in Başköy plain. Also, springs are important for agricultural purposes in the region. In this study, hydrochemical processes, drinking water chemistry and to classify for agricultural purposes of springs, were evaluated in order to determine the water quality.

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Study area The study area is located in the western part of Ağlasun plain and lies approximately between latitudes 37°38′ to 37°39′ N latitude and 30°29′ to 30°32′ E longitude. Ağlasun plain is situated in Lake District of Turkey and in the northwest of Burdur city. The plain covers an area of 270 km2 (Fig. 1). The area has a temperate climate, and the air temperature is highest and lowest in −16.7 and 39.6 °C, respectively. Average annual rainfall in the Ağlasun plain is about 446.24 mm. Ağlasun River runs all across the Ağlasun plain, virtually dividing it into two halves. Precipitation area and average annual flow value of Ağlasun River are 48.7 km2 and 18.46 m3/year, respectively. Başköy springs are the most important water resources of the study area. These springs in the area are utilized for drinking and irrigation purposes, trout breeding, and the rest discharged to Ağlasun River. Especially, Eynazlı spring water bottled by a private company. But, most of the springs were discharged as uncontrolled. So, these springs should be evaluated and improved the most effectively.

Materials and methods In order to assess the physico-chemical parameters, a total of 12 water samples were collected from springs in two periods (April–October 2013). All sample locations were situated with GPS equipment, and sampling location map was prepared. In situ measurements such as electrical conductivity (EC), total

Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 748

dissolved solids (TDS), pH, redox potential (Eh), and temperature (T) of the waters were measured using a portable multiparameter HANNA (HI 991301 and HI9125). Water samples were collected in polyethylene bottles of 1-L capacity from each spring and acidified below a pH of 2 and dispatched for analysis to the laboratory in an ice-filled box. Cations (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2) and anions (Cl−, SO42−, HCO3−, CO32−), phosphate (PO43−), nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), and ammonia (NH4+) were analyzed in the Isparta Süleyman Demirel University, Geothermal Energy and Mineral and Groundwater Resources Research Center. Also, trace elements (Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Cd, Se, As, Fe, Cr) were analyzed in the Bureau Veritas Minerals Laboratories (BVML)/(Canada). These results were evaluated in detail and compared with water quality guidelines of WHO (2011). Obtained hydrochemical results were evaluated through a variety of diagrams (Piper, Pie, Gibbs, Schoeller). Also, the water quality for irrigation such as total hardness (TH), salinity hazard (SH), percent sodium (Na%), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC), permeability index (PI), potential salinity (PS), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), magnesium ratio (MR), and Kelly’s ratio (KR) was assessed and compared with standard limits. Also, chloroalkaline index (CAI I and CAI II) was calculated. The statistical parameters such as minimum, maximum, average, and standard deviation values of result analysis of these spring waters were calculated using the statistical package for Social Sciences Software (SPSS 15.0). Mineral saturation index (SI) was calculated for using software Solmineq 88 (Kharaka et al. 1988). Geological–hydrogeological map and

Fig. 1 Hydrogeological–geological (Şenel 1997; Yalçınkaya 1989) map and tektono-stratigraphic columnar section of the study area

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cross section of springs were prepared by CORELDRAW X5 computer program. The springs are classified according to the irrigation water criteria.

Geological and hydrogeological setting Autochthonous and allochthonous rock units crop out within the investigated area. The autochthonous units are composed of Ağlasun formation and alluvium. The allochthonous units are Akdağ limestone and Isparta ophiolite complex (Yalçınkaya 1989; Şenel 1997, Fig. 1). Tertiary-aged Ağlasun formation has been formed from the intercalation of sandstone, claystone, marl, shale, and overlain by conglomerate which has polygenic pebbles (Karaman 1990; Görmüş and Özkul 1995). Its thickness is approximately 1500 m. Upper Cretaceous aged Isparta ophiolite complex is composed of mafic-ultramafic rocks such as serpentinite, harzburgite, gabbro, peridotite, and pelagic-terrigeneous sediments as radiolarite, chert, limestone, shale, and sandstone (Yalçınkaya 1989; Robertson 1993; Karaman 1994). These series are located in the west of plain. Upper Triassic aged Akdağ formation is approximately 750–1000 m thick and includes levels of medium–thick layer, recrystallized limestones (Yalçınkaya1989; Karaman 1990; Karaman 1994; Görmüş and Özkul 1995). The carbonate rock is situated in the north and southwestern part of study area. Quaternary unit has covered all of the units as discordant. Quaternary Alluvium which is composed of un-cemented clay, sand, silt, and gravel levels overlies above another units, and it crops out in a wide area up to the investigation area (Fig. 1). In the study area, porous aquifer mediums are determined according to hydrogeological properties of the lithological units. Quaternary alluvium which is composed of loosely gravel, sand, silt, and clay materials has a good aquifer character, and it was defined as porous aquifer. The Akdağ formation which is composed of limestone has karstic properties due to melting cavities and secondary porosity which is developed along intersection of fault, cracks, and discontinuity levels. Akdağ formation was defined as karstic aquifer. Ağlasun formation is complex describing as aquifuge medium I. Isparta ophiolite complex described as aquifuge medium II is impermeable units in the study area. The geological formations have not interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water. Başköy springs are composed of Çaygözü, Küllük, Baran, Deregözü, Eynazlı, and Manasır springs. Çaygözü, Küllük, and Baran springs discharged from contact of Akdağ limestone and ophiolite complex.

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Deregözü, Eynazlı, and Manasır springs are discharged from fault zones (Fig. 2). The average yields of the springs are Eynazlı (50 l/s), Deregözü (77 l/s), Çaygözü (106 l/s), Küllük (85 l/s), Manasır (42 l/s), and Baran (21 l/s), respectively (Davraz and Aksever 2013).

Results and discussion Groundwater chemistry Spring water chemistry depends on a number of factors such as general geology, degree of chemical weathering of the various rock types, quality of recharge water, and influence of external pollution agencies. Such factors and their interactions result in a complex water quality (Aghazadeh and Mogaddam 2011; Singh et al. 2011). In order to determine groundwater chemistry in the investigation area, water samples were taken from springs for dry and rainy period in April 2013 and October 2013, and it was analyzed. Dominant cations and anion in the springs are Ca2+, K+, and HCO3−, respectively. HCO3−, exceeded 50% of total anions. Pie diagrams are plotted for defining the chemical distribution of springs and shown in Fig. 3. The abundance of the major ions in springs is in the following order: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ > Na+ and HCO3−>SO42 > Cl−. Results of physical and chemical parameters of Başköy springs are presented in Table 1. Also, the statistical results of Başköy springs, such as minimum, maximum, average, and standard deviation, are also reported in Table 2. Physical parameters It is important to understand the pH in water supplies. The pH values of the springs in the investigation area range from 6.69 to 7.72 with an average value of 7.40 (Tables 1 and 2). According to WHO (2011), the pH value for drinking water should be between 6.5 and 8.8. Başköy springs could be described as alkaline (pH > 7). However, Çaygözü spring (6.69–6.82) is acidic for pH < 7 in the both periods. All of the pH values of spring water are suitable for drinking water standard of WHO (2011). Also, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (Misstear et al. 2006), permissible limit pH range from 6.5 to 8.4 for irrigation water and Başköy springs is Bsuitable.^ The temperature and redox potential values of the springs in the study area range from 10.60 to 16.00 °C and from −40.40 to 14.10, respectively (Tables 1 and 2). The EC values of springs range from 270 to 954 μS/cm with an average value of 537.42 μS/cm (Tables 1 and 2). The redox potential (Eh) values of springs range from −40.40 to 14.10 with an average value of −14.82

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Fig. 2 Geological section of Başköy springs

(Tables 1 and 2). TDS values of springs were measured in situ, and these values vary from 130 to 490 mg/L with an average value of 280 mg/L (Tables 1 and 2). Groundwater

Fig. 3 Pie diagram of major ions of Başköy springs

flow direction of the investigation area is towards SE from NW. Çaygözü spring discharges from high topography in the northwest of the area. The ion content of groundwaters

Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 748 Table 1

Parameters of Başköy springs (April–October 2013)

Sample No

April 2013 1

T EC TDS

O

C

μs/cm mg/L

pH Eh

October 2013

2

10.6 360 200 7.72 −4.8

2+

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3

11 317 220 7.53 −27.8

4

15.3 954 490 6.69 14.1 18.55 4.06 188.9 1.28 2.07 7.19 664.9

5

13.7

6

1

Pyhsical parameters 12.4 11.5

740 360

355 190

613 350

7.37 −13.3

7.64 −40.4

7.46 −20.1

Mg Na+ Ca2+ K+ Cl− SO42− HCO3−

mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L

3.91 2.18 52.65 1.69 1.64 3.68 189.1

2.89 2 54.34 0.64 1.65 2.86 195.2

14.12 3.63 178.5 0.93 3.03 5.4 530.7

PO43−

mg/L

0.04

0.04

0.044

0.04

NO3− NO2− NH4+

mg/L mg/L mg/L

4.30 0.01 0.00

4.56 0.01 0.00

8.69 0.02 0.00

4.85 0.01 0.00

Chemical parameters 4.75 13.71 2.71 5.87 61.82 105.6 0.46 0.86 1.74 6.17 4.21 8.13 213.5 396.5 0.04 0.04 Nutrients 2.70 6.25 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 Trace Elements 0.38 0.24

2

12.7 270 130

3

11.8 280 140

4

16 900 450

5

15.2

6

14.1

12.2

749 390

320 160

560 280

7.69 −4.8

7.63 −23.7

6.82 12.7

7.51 −13.1

7.6 −38.2

7.19 −18.4

4.71 2.29 56.8 0.87 1.64 3.56 170.86

19.53 4.06 144.73 1.28 1.9 7.88 177.32

15.86 3.91 110.18 1.05 2.04 5.88 579.69

5.14 3.05 70.21 0.53 1.93 4.21 213.57

14.95 6.61 120.43 1.01 3.74 9.22 384.43

3.01 2.2 62.25 0.64 1.95 2.95 170.86

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

4.44 0.01 0.00

6 0.01 0.00

4.70 0.01 0.00

3.04 0.01 0.00

5.97 0.01 0.00

6.25 0.01 0.00

Mn

μg/L

2.34

0.72

0.22

7.34

0.31

0.05

4.02

0.12

0.44

0.15

Cu Zn Pb Hg

μg/L μg/L μg/L μg/L

0.60 3.50 0.20 0.01

1.10 74.8 0.30 0.01

0.50 5.30 0.10 0.01

1.10 4.50 0.20 0.01

0.50 1.60 0.20 0.01

0.9 3.70 0.20 0.01

0.20 0.90 0.10 0.01

0.20 0.40 0.10 0.01

0.20 0.40 0.10 0.20

0.20 1.40 0.10 0.01

0.50 1.60 0.10 0.01

0.50 1.40 0.10 0.01

Cd Se

μg/L μg/L

0.04 0.40

0.04 0.40

0.17 0.45

30.79 0.40

0.04 0.40

1.34 0.40

0.04 0.40

0.04 0.40

0.04 0.50

0.04 0.40

0.04 0.40

0.04 0.40

As Fe Cr

μg/L μg/L μg/L

4.98 43 0.40

0.40 160 0.50

0.45 18 1.70

0.40 52 1.50

0.40 9 0.40

0.40 9 1.80

0.40 9 0.40

0.60 8 13.4

0.40 9 12

0.40 7 2.20

0.60 9 7.30

0.40 8 0.80

CAI I

−3.36

−6.50

−6.04

−4.25

Chloro-alkaline indices −5.28 −3.00 −46.48

−1.19

−2.62

−1.14

0.51

−0.59

CA I II

−1.14

−0.57

−0.62

−1.17

−0.36

−0.23

−0.13

0.14

−0.09

−0.80

−1.01

−14.32

Springs: 1 Eynazlı, 2 Deregözü, 3 Çaygözü, 4 Küllük, 5 Manasır, 6 Baran

varies during the circulation due to contact with rocks. This spring has very high ion content due to prolonged contact with rocks. Ca, HCO3, EC, and TDS values of Çaygözü spring increased as related to deep circulation, long residence time of water, and long time of interaction with rocks, recharging from higher altitude. The palatability of water with a TDS level of less than about 600 mg/L is generally considered to be good (WHO 2011). Also, the maximum permissible limit of TDS for drinking water is 500 mg/L as per the USEPA (2012) drinking water standards. According to the WHO (2011) and USEPA (2012), all springs of TDS values are suitable for drinking water.

Hydrochemical evaluation Hydrochemical facies The geochemical evaluation of groundwaters can be understood by plotting the concentrations of major cations and anions in the Piper (1944) trilinear diagram. Major cations and anions of the Başköy spring waters were plotted in Piper diagram (Fig. 4). The dominant water type is Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies. The plot shows that most of the spring water samples fall in the field of alkaline Earth metals (Ca2+, Mg2+) dominating over the alkalies (Na+, K+) and weak acid (CO32−, HCO3−) exceeding the strong acid (Cl−, SO42−).

748 Page 6 of 18 Table 2 Parameter

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Summary statistics of physical, chemical, and pollution parameters of the springs (April–October 2013) Units

Minimum

In situ measurements pH 6.69 o C 10.60 T Eh −40.40 EC μS/cm 270.00 TDS mg/L 130 Major Elements meq/L 0.01 Na+ meq/L 2.63 Ca2+ meq/L 0.01 K+ meq/L 0.24 Mg2+ meq/L 0.03 Cl− meq/L 0.06 SO42− meq/L 2.80 HCO3− 3− meq/L 0.001 PO4 Criterions of irrigation TH mg/L 147.40 Na% % 0.68 SAR meq/L 0.01 RSC meq/L −1.37 RSCB meq/L −0.31 PI meq/L 30.38 PS meq/L −0.05 SSP meq/L 0.34 MR meq/L 7.39 KR meq/L 0.00 Saturation index and ion–exchange processes − −2.10 SIapatite − −0.22 SIaragonite − 0.01 SIcalcite − −0.18 SIdolomite − 1.50 SIkaolin − 1.43 SImuscovite − −0.25 SIquartz CAI I meq/L −46.48 CAI II meq/L −14.32 Nutrients mg/L 2.70 NO3− mg/L 0.01 NO2− mg/L 0.00 NH4+ Trace elements Mn μg/L 0.05 Cu μg/L 0.20 Zn μg/L 0.40 Pb μg/L 0.10 Hg μg/L 0.01 Cd μg/L 0.04 Se μg/L 0.40 As μg/L 0.40 Fe μg/L 7.00 Cr μg/L 0.40

Maximum

7.72 16.00 14.10 954.00 490 0.29 9.43 2.09 1.61 0.17 0.19 11.10 0.001

Average

7.40 13.044 −14.82 537.42 280 0,15 5,02 0,19 0,83 0,05 0,11 5,99 0,001

Standard Deviation

0.34 1.79 17.29 253.97 125

6.5–8.8

600–1000

0,08 2,45 0,60 0,54 0,04 0,05 3,29 0,000

547.60 5.87 0.08 2.70 4.00 61.77 0.09 3.97 19.18 0.04

292.35 3.13 0.05 0.15 0.98 46.45 0.00 2.51 13.16 0.03

147.04 1.36 0.02 1.20 1.48 10.58 0.04 1.07 3.98 0.01

4.78 0.74 0.89 2.15 3.38 4.22 0.30 0.51 0.14

3.13 0.16 0.29 0.76 2.16 2.40 −0.02 −6.66 −1.69

1.99 0.32 0.29 0.68 0.61 0.88 0.20 −1.69 4.00

8.69 0.02 0.00

5.15 0.01 0.00

7.34 1.10 74.80 0.30 0.20 30.79 0.50 9.98 160.00 13.40

1.36 0.54 8.29 0.15 0.03 2.72 0.42 1.24 28.42 3.53

Gibbs plot During weathering and water circulation in rocks and soils, ions leached out and dissolved in groundwater (Naseem et al. 2010). The geological formations, water–rock interaction, and relative mobility of ions are prime factors influencing the geochemistry of groundwater (Yousef et al. 2009). Gibbs diagram is widely used to establish the relationship of water composition and aquifer lithological characteristics (Gibbs 1970). In this diagram, ratio of dominant cations is plotted against the values of

WHO (2011)

1.61 0.002 0.000 2.23 0.33 21.01 0.06 0.06 8.85 0.03 2.75 44.08 4.69

50 3 − 400 2000 3000 10 6 3 40 10 300 50

TDS. Three distinct fields, such as precipitation–dominance, evaporation–dominance, and rock–dominance areas, are shown in the diagram. The chemical data of spring samples are plotted in Gibbs diagram, and it was found that all of the samples fall in the rock–dominance region (Fig. 5), thus indicating that precipitation induced chemical weathering along with the dissolution of rockforming minerals which have contributed in the modification of groundwater chemistry.

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Fig. 4 Piper diagram of Başköy springs

Indices of base exchange (IBE) It is essential to know the changes in chemical composition of groundwater during its

travel in the sub-surface (Sastri 1994). The chloro-alkaline indices CAI I and CAI II are suggested by Schoeller (1965, 1967, 1977), which indicates ion exchange between the groundwater and its host environment during residence or travel. If there is ion exchange of Na+ and K+ from water with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in rock, the exchange is known as direct when the indices are positive. If the exchange is in the reverse order, then the exchange is indirect and the indices are found to be negative, indicating chloro-alkaline disequilibrium (Kumar et al. 2007; Kaka et al. 2011; Aghazadeh and Mogaddam 2011). The CAI used in the evaluation of base exchange are calculated using the formulas [1, 2]. . ‐ CAI I ¼ fCl‐ ‐ðNaþ þKþ Þg Cl ð1Þ .  þ CAI II ¼ fCl‐ ‐ðNaþ þ Kþ Þg SO4 2 þ HCO3 ‐ þ CO3 ‐ þ NO3 ‐

ð2Þ

The CAI I and II are calculated for the springs of the study area as given in Table 1. CAI I and CAI II values were found from −46.48 to 0.51 and from −14.32 to 0.14, respectively. The spring samples have negative CAI. In view of the negative index values, Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions are exchanged with Na+ and K+ ions in springs (Cl < Na + K).

Fig. 5 Gibbs diagram of Başköy springs

Saturation index SIs are used to evaluate the degree of equilibrium between water and minerals. Changes in saturation

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Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 748

specifies that the groundwater being supersaturated with respect to the particular mineral phase and, therefore, incapable of dissolving more of the mineral. Such an index value reflects groundwater discharging from an aquifer containing sample amount of the mineral with sufficient resident time to reach equilibrium. Nonetheless, supersaturation can also be produced by other factors that include incongruent dissolution, common ion effect, evaporation, rapid increase in temperature, and CO2 exsolution (Langmuir 1997; Appelo and Postma 2005). The SIs were calculated using the hydrogeochemical equilibrium model, Solmineq-88 for Windows (Kharaka et al. 1988). Results of SI as dry and rainy period were shown in Table 3 and its statistical evaluations were shown in Table 2. Nearly all springs samples were supersaturated (SI > 0) with respect to apatite, aragonite, calcite, dolomite, kaolin, muscovite, and quartz minerals (Table 2). SI values vary in the dry and rainy seasons. With increasing dissolution of the rainy season, the entry of new water SI is

state are useful to distinguish different stages of hydrochemical evaluation and help identify which geochemical reactions are important in controlling water chemistry (Coetsiers and Walraevens 2006; Drever 1997; Langmuir 1997). The SI of a mineral is obtained from Eq. (3) (Garrels and Mackenzie 1967).  .  SI ¼ log IAP Kt

ð3Þ

IAP: The ion activity product of the dissociated chemical species in solution Kt: The equilibrium solubility product for the chemical involved at the sample temperature. An index (SI), less than zero, indicates that the groundwater is undersaturated with respect to that particular mineral. Such a value could reflect the character of water from a formation with insufficient amount of the mineral for solution or short residence time. An index (SI), greater than zero, Table 3

Values of mineral saturation index in the springs

Mineral of (SI)

April 2013 1

October 2013 2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

Adularia Albite

−1.599 −3.316

−2.91 −3.528

−2.564 −3.137

−2.789 −3.285

−2.833 −3.163

−1.512 −1.785

−2.754 −3.431

−2.16 −2.764

−2.842 −3.34

−3.111 −3.426

−2.084 −2.352

−2.93 −3.495

Analcime Andesite Anhydrite Anorthite

−2.647 −5.386 −3.433 −6.389

−2.812 −5.562 −3.523 −6.505

−2.719 −5.447 −2.823 −6.739

−2.827 −5.592 −2.953 −6.901

−2.465 −5.133 −3.316 −5.957

−1.481 −4.04 −2.925 −5.306

−2.852 −5.647 −3.406 −6.834

−2.424 −5.173 −2.884 −6.665

−2.968 −5.866 −3.047 −7.472

−2.793 −5.563 −3.258 −6.595

−2.112 −4.898 −2.817 −6.56

−2.862 −5.63 −3.454 −6.704

Apatite Aragonite Barite

4.016 −0.067 −0.063

3.262 −0.22 −1.298

0.956 −0.047 −0.902

4.396 0.501 −0.821

4.008 0.005 −1.305

3.8 0.243 −0.836

4.166 −0.073 −1.186

4.497 0.737 −0.784

−2.097 −0.16 −0.114

3.897 0.04 −2.336

4.775 0.459 −0.8

1.921 0.539 −2.272

0.086 −0.373 −5.367 0.273 −3.019 −9.969 −0.938 2.116 −0.457 −1.457 −0.457 3.586 −0.252 −1.378 −13.368 −5.426 −17.093

0.067 −0.425 −5.036 −0.177 −3.113 −10.005 −1.663 2.326 −0.863 −1.749 −0.862 2.581 0.301 −2.695 −15.629 −7.096 −21.625

0.102 −0.178 −4.776 0.456 −2.45 −9.662 −1.074 2.923 −0.603 −1.243 −0.602 2.94 0.025 −1.402 −17.00 −8.26 −24.172

0.651 −0.201 −6.149 1.45 −2.566 −9.534 −2.095 1.561 −0.797 −0.812 −0.796 1.432 −0.059 −2.609 −12.491 −4.862 −16.04

0.147 −0.425 −4.837 0.418 −2.918 −9.859 −1.347 2.473 −0.816 −1.354 −0.815 2.774 0.292 −2.637 −13.587 −5.569 −17.368

0.396 −0.02 −4.771 1.141 −2.518 −8.992 −0.21 3.383 −0.525 −0.889 −0.525 4.215 −0.107 −1.303 −11.143 −22.448 −64.408

0.078 −0.31 −6.035 0.314 −3.01 −9.956 −2.096 1.495 −0.743 −1.385 −0.742 1.683 −0.174 −2.562 −12.405 −4.741 −15.653

0.889 −0.059 −6.508 2.149 −2.481 −9.681 −1.609 1.557 −0.129 −0.371 −0.129 1.813 0.07 −1.955 −9.477 −2.668 −11.59

0.012 −0.138 −5.68 0.395 −2.68 −9.672 −1.892 2.072 −0.894 −1.183 −0.893 1.72 0.018 −2.688 −15.735 −7.333 −22.383

0.109 −0.393 −5.493 0.337 −2.884 −9.775 −2.086 1.78 −1.1148 −1.37 −1.148 1.682 −0.241 −2.949 −13.656 −5.644 −17.518

0.609 −0.012 −6.573 1.563 −2.433 −9.17 −1.543 1.551 −0.1 −0.654 −0.099 1.691 0.157 −1.909 −9.081 −2.413 −10.944

0.388 −0.359 −4.818 0.854 −3.054 −9.897 −1.546 2.633 −0.908 −2.093 −0.908 2.709 −0.226 −2.73 −17.594 −8.607 −24.144

Calcite Chalcedony Corundum Dolomite Gypsum Halite Illite Kaolinite K−Spar Magnetite Microcline Muscovite Quartz Sanidine Sepiolite Talc Tremolite

Springs: 1 Eynazlı, 2 Deregözü, 3 Çaygözü, 4 Küllük, 5 Manasır, 6 Baran

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increasing. In dry periods, SI is reduced. Most of the groundwaters are saturated with respect to calcite, dolomite, kaolin, muscovite, and apatite (Table 3 and Fig. 6), indicating that carbonate minerals may have influenced the chemical composition of groundwaters. Calcite and dolomite often exists in a supersaturated state. The increase in SI values was observed in the locations associated with Akdağ formation. Akdağ formation that is karstic aquifer is composed of limestones. In the karstic media, dissolving dolomite, aragonite, and calcite in the limestones becomes saturated carbonate minerals. These data suggest a long time residence of water in the host carbonate rocks. Ağlasun formation in the investigation area which is composed of sandstone is rich muscovite and quartz minerals. Therefore, groundwater is supersaturated in these minerals because there is interaction between groundwaters and this formation. In addition, Isparta volcanic is located around the study area, and it becomes widespread. This unit cuts all the other units, and it consists of trachyte, trachyandesitic, tuff, rhyolite, and ignimbrites. During the interaction with volcanics of groundwater, water is saturated apatite mineral through trachyte, trachyandesit, and also, waters enriched with kaolin mineral through rhyolite, tuff, and ignimbrites. All of the groundwaters studied are undersaturated with respect to anhydrite, gypsum, and halite (Table 3 and Fig. 6), suggesting that evaporite mineral phases are minor or absent in the host rocks. The computation of saturation indices of groundwater indicates that the carbonate minerals define a trend allowing the precipitation of dolomite and calcite. Groundwater mineralization processes Bivariate diagrams of major elements versus TDS values are used to identify geochemical processes that contribute to the groundwater mineralization (Fig. 7, Ben Moussa et al. 2009; Hamed et al. 2011; Tarki et al. 2016). Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO3−

Fig. 6 Plots of saturation indices with respect to some minerals

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are the most active ions that contribute to the groundwater mineralization in the aquifer systems. These positive correlations indicate that the referred elements Ca2+, Mg2+, and HCO 3 contribute to the groundwater mineralization. Calcium and magnesium are the dominant ions of groundwater; it reveals that dissolution of carbonate minerals is responsible for them. During infiltration or along the flow, groundwater may dissolve the CaCO3 and CaMg(CO3)2 present in the rocks, and the calcium concentration of groundwater will increase. In the study area, weathering is one of the key geochemical processes which are controlled by the solute concentration in groundwater. The chemical data of the groundwater samples is plotted for Ca2+ + Mg2+ vs total cation diagram (Fig. 8a). The data fall above the equiline (1:1), mineral dissolution lines with R2 = 0.9603, indicating that the higher concentration of Ca2+ + Mg2+ in the groundwater is an index of ion exchange process. The (Ca2+ + Mg2+) vs (HCO−3 + SO2−4) scatter diagram shows that most of the samples are falling above the equiline of 1:1, thus indicating carbonate weathering as a major source of Ca and Mg (Datta and Tyagi 1996; Dehnavi et al. 2011, Fig. 8b). Besides, the samples are close to the 1:1 mineral dissolution lines with R2 = 0.8536, indicating that dissolution of minerals in the groundwater is an important geochemical process governing the chemistry of the groundwater. Also, the graph of (Ca2+ + Mg2+) vs (HCO−3 + SO2−4) features a nearly 1:1 line if dissolutions of calcite, dolomite, and gypsum are the dominant reactions in the system (Srivastava and Ramanathan 2008). Ion exchange tends to shift the points right because of the excess of HCO−3 + SO2−4 ions, which may be due to anthropogenic input in the groundwater system (Cerling et al. 1989; Fisher and Mullican 1997). Carbonate weathering results from the action of rainwater impregnated with CO2 and becomes rich in carbonic acid (Nayak and Sahood 2011). The carbonic acid influences the dissolution of carbonate minerals

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Fig. 7 Plots of major elements versus TDS

(calcite and dolomite) in the aquifer system (Nur et al. 2012). The aquifers in the investigation area when in contact with water undergo calcite and dolomite dissolution.

A Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio of 1 shows the dissolution of dolomite, whereas a higher ratio is indicative of greater calcite contribution (Maya and Loucks 1995). Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio greater than 2

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Fig. 8 Graphs of different parameters

indicates the dissolution of silicate minerals which could contribute calcium and magnesium to groundwater (Katz et al. 1998). The Ca/Mg ratios in the groundwater samples of the study area have a ratio greater than 2 indicating the effects of silicate minerals (Fig. 8c). Additionally, all of groundwater within the study area had Mg2+/(Ca2+ + Mg2+) equivalent ratios less than 0.5, suggesting limestone and dolomite or dolomite weathering, and these weathering processes are responsible for the sources of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in groundwater within the area. Further, 100% of groundwater had Ca2+/ (Ca2+ + SO4=) equivalent ratios greater than 0.5, suggesting calcium source other than gypsum–carbonates, calcite/dolomite, or silicates. Thus, calcite/dolomite carbonates or silicate dissolution may have contributed significantly to the concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ (Tay 2012).

If halite dissolution is responsible for sodium, the Na/ Cl ratio should be approximately equal to 1, whereas a ratio greater than 1 is typically interpreted as Na released from silicate weathering reactions (Kumar et al. 2006; Tay 2012). In the study area, the Na/Cl ratio of groundwater samples generally varies from 1.46 to 6.32 (Fig. 8d). All of the samples have a Na/Cl ratio above 1, indicating that an ion exchange process is prevalent in the study area (Fig. 8d) (Kumar et al. 2006). The evidence for ion exchange in the development of salinization can lead to release of Na+ from clay products, replacing Ca2+ that is present in groundwater. Even though all groundwater is saturated with calcite and dolomite (Table 2), it is undersaturated with gypsum/anhydrite; the dissolution of anhydrite continues. The plot of Ca2+ versus SO42− shows a

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weak correlation (Fig. 8e), indicating that the dissolution of gypsum and/or anhydrite is relatively limited.

Drinking water quality The quality of groundwater depends both on the substances dissolved in the water and on certain properties and characteristics that these substances impart to the water (Heath 1982). The result analysis of physical parameters, nutrients, trace elements, and major ions of spring was compared with the World Health Organization (WHO 2011) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA 2012) drinking water standard guideline recommended values for drinking (Table 2). Results of spring waters do not exceed to standard maximum allowable limit values. But, Cd concentration from

Fig. 9 Schoeller diagram of Başköy springs

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trace elements exceeded the WHO (2011) and USEPA (2012) limit. Also, Schoeller (1955) drinkable diagram is used for evaluating usability as drinking water of springs in the investigation area. Eynazlı, Deregözü, and Manasır springs were classified as Bvery good quality drinkable waters.^ Also, Küllük and Baran springs were classified Bgood quality drinkable waters^ by the Schoeller’s diagram. But, Çaygözü spring was classified as Bmedium quality drinkable waters^ due to its high electrical conductivity (EC) and total hardness (TH) values (Fig. 9).

Nutrients In rural areas, increased use of nitrogen fertilizers has led to increased potential contamination of groundwater by nutrients. In Başköy springs, nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia

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concentrations were analyzed as nutrients and water quality evaluated. Nutrient values detailed were given in Table 1. Nitrate is the most frequently introduced pollutant into groundwater systems (Spalding and Exner 1993; Babiker et al. 2004) and contamination of groundwater by nitrates the most common nutrient in groundwater. The nitrate ion concentration of springs varies from 2.70 to 8.69 mg/L (Aksever and Davraz 2015). Nitrate recommended by the WHO (2011), maximum permissible limit for nitrate ion concentration for drinking water is 50 mg/L. Nitrate content in the spring samples is suitable according to the drinking water standards. Nitrite ion concentration of the springs in the study area ranges from 0.01 to 0.02 mg/L. According to the WHO (2011), maximum accessible values for nitrite ion concentration for drinking water are 3 mg/L. Nitrite concentration of springs did not exceed the limit value. Ammonia concentration value of the springs is 0.00 mg/L. Ammonia in drinking water is not of immediate health relevance, and therefore, no health-based guideline value is proposed (WHO 2011). Trace elements Trace elements in subsurface environments come from geogenic and anthropogenic sources. The weathering of minerals is one of the major natural sources. Ion exchange is also an important process for trace elements. Anthropogenic sources include fertilizers, industrial effluent, and leakage from service pipes. The trace element contents (Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Cd, Se, As, Fe, Cr) of spring samples were determined for water quality in study area (Table 1). The max. contents of Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Se in spring water samples were determined as 7.34, 1.10, 74.80, 0.30, 0.20, and 0.50 μg/L, respectively. Besides, the Cd, As, Fe, and Cr concentrations of spring water are changed between 0.04–30.79, 0.40–9.98, 7–160, and 0.40–13.40 μg/L, respectively (Table 2). The Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Se, As, Fe, and Cr contents of the water samples are within the permissible limit of WHO (2011). However, the highest Cd concentration (30.79 μg/L) was observed at Küllük spring in April 2013. Cadmium concentrations in unpolluted natural waters are usually below 1 μg/L (Friberg et al. 1986). Whereas the concentration of cadmium in drinking water is 3 μg/L or greater, this will be the dominant source of intake (WHO 2011). Also, according to the USEPA (2012) drinking water standards, cadmium concentration allowable limit value is 3 μg/L. Cadmium concentration ranges from 0.04 to 30.79 μg/L with an average value of 2.72 μg/L in spring samples. The WHO (2011) and USEPA (2012) drinking water limit was observed for the cadmium concentration of the Küllük spring (30.79 μg/L) in the dry reason. But, this concentration value (<0.05 μg/L) is decreased during rainy season due to dilution. Cadmium is widely distributed as a mineral deposit and is found in shale and igneous (volcanic) rocks, coal, sandstones,

Page 13 of 18 748

limestones, lake and marine sediments, soils, etc. Localized and naturally high cadmium concentrations can be found in zinc ores, zinc bearing lead ores, and complex copper-leadzinc ores, where it forms isomorphic impurity in zinc sulfides such as sphalerite, usually in concentrations of 0.1–0.5%. It is found in phosphorites, hydrothermally mineralized rocks, and some black shale deposits (Scoullos et al. 2001). Cadmium is released to the environment in wastewater, and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air pollution. Contamination in drinking water may also be caused by impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings (WHO 2011). The increase of Cd concentration from Küllük spring is associated with Isparta ophiolite complex due to water–rock interaction. There are no anthropogenic sources in the study area to the increased Cd of the Küllük spring. Irrigation water quality The suitability of groundwater for irrigation is conditional on the effects of mineral constituents of water on both the plant and soil. Excessive amount of dissolved ions in irrigation water affects plants and agricultural soil physically and chemically, thus reducing the productivity. Agriculture and related labor are the main occupation of the rural people in the Başköy plain. Therefore, the determination of irrigation water quality in the plain is gaining importance. So, various classifications (EC, TDS, TH, SH, Na%, SAR, RSC, RSBC, PI, PS, SSP, MR, and KR) have been made to determine the irrigation water quality for springs in dry and rainy periods. Allowable limits of the irrigation water quality parameters are given as water class in Table 4. Obtained data was evaluated according to the irrigation classifications in Table 4. Electrical conductivity (EC) According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (Ayers and Westcot 1985) irrigation water quality guidelines, electrical conductivity allowable limit value should be from <700 to 30,000 μS/cm. The EC values of springs range from 270 to 954 μS/cm with an average value of 537.42 μS/cm (Table 2). Also, according to EC, 83% of the spring samples in both periods are suitable for irrigation. Başköy springs are Bgood^ based on electrical conductivity classification by Richards (1954) and Raghunath (1987) except one sample (Table 4). Çaygözü spring is Bpermissible^ due to its EC values of 954–900 μS/cm (EC > 750 μS/cm) in the both periods. Total dissolved solids To ascertain the suitability of groundwater for any purposes, it is essential to classify the groundwater depending upon their hydrochemical properties based on their TDS values (Catroll 1962; Freeze and Cherry 1979). In the FAO irrigation water quality guidelines (Ayers and Westcot 1985), TDS allowable limit value should be

748 Page 14 of 18 Table 4

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Irrigation water classifications of the springs

Parameter

Symbol Unit

References

Formula

FAO (2006)

Electrical EC Conductivity

μS/cm

Total Dissolved Solid

TDS

mg/L

Total Hardness

TH

Sawyer and TH = (Ca2++ mg/L McMcartly, 1967 Mg2+)meq/Lx50 CaCO3

Percentage Sodium

Na%

Sodium Adsorption Ratio

SAR

Salinity Hazard

SH

meq/L

meq/L

Wilcox 1955

Todd 1980

TDS = 0.64xEC

meq/L

Residual Sodium Bicarbonate

RSBC

meq/L

Permeability Index

PI

PS

Soluble Sodium SSP Percentage

Na% = {(Na++K+)× 100}/ (Ca2++Mg2++ Na++K+)

SAR = Na+/{ (Ca2++Mg2+)/2}

MR

meq/L

meq/L

meq/L

meq/L

Eaton 1950 Richards 1954 Raghunath 1987 Gupta 1983

Raghunath 1987

Doneen 1962

Todd 1960

Raghunath 1987

RSC= (HCO3−+CO32−)(Ca2++Mg2+) RSBC = (HCO3−–Ca2+) PI = {(Na++ √HCO3−)×100}/ (Na++Ca2++Mg2+) −

PS = (Cl )– (½SO42−)

SSP = {(Na+)/ (Ca2++Mg2++ K+)}×100

MR = (Mg2+×100)/ 2+

Kelly Ratio

<250 250–750 750–2000 2000–3000 >3000 0–2.000 <1.000 1.000–10.000 10.000–100.000 >100.000 <75

0–15

Richards 1954

RSC

Magnesium Ratio

Catroll 1962 Freeze and Cherry 1979

0–3

Richards 1954 Saleh et al. 1999

Residual Sodium Carbonate

Potential Salinity

Richards, 1954 Raghunath 1987

KR

meq/L

Kelley, 1963

Ranges

2+

(Ca +Mg ) KR = {(Na+)/ (Ca2++Mg2+)}

from <500 to 30,000 mg/L. TDS values of springs were measured in situ in this study. The TDS values in the study area vary from 138 to 508 mg/L with an average value of 278 mg/L (Table 2). Also, according to TDS classification,

1.25–2.5

April October 2013 2013 sample no sample no

Water class

Excellent Good Permissible Doubtful Unsuitable Fresh water Brackish water Saline water Brine water Soft

1,2,4,5,6 3

1,2,4,5,6 3

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,4,5,6 2,3 1,2,3,4,5,6

1,4,5,6 2,3 1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,4,5,6 3

1,2,4,5,6 3

1,4,5,6 2,3

1,2,3,4,5,6

75–150 150–300 >300 0–20

Moderately hard Hard Very hard Excellent

20–40

Good

40–60 60–80 >80 <10

Permissible Doubtful Unsuitable Excellent S1

10–18 19–26 >26 100–250 (EC) 250–750 750–2250 >2250 <1.25 1.25–2.5

Good Doubtful Unsuitable Excellent Good Doubtful Unsuitable Good Doubtful

>2.5 <5

Unsuitable Satisfactory

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

5–10 >10 >75%

Marginal Unsatisfactory Excellent Class I

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

75% - 25% <25% <5

Good Class II Unsuitable Class III Excellent to good 1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

5–10 >10 0–20 20–40

Good to injurious Injurious to satisfactory Excellent Good

40–60 60–80 80–100 <50

S2 S3 S4-S5 C1 C2 C3 C4-C5

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

Permissible Doubtful Unsuitable Suitable

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

>50 <1

Unsuitable Suitable

1,2,3,4,5,6

1,2,3,4,5,6

1–2 >2

Marginal suitable Unsuitable

100% of the springs in both periods are suitable for irrigation. Spring water samples fall under Bfresh water^ (TDS < 1.000 mg/L) types of water (Catroll 1962; Freeze and Cherry 1979, Table 4).

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Total hardness (TH) Hardness is an important criterion for determining the suitability of groundwater for domestic and industrial purposes (Hem 1985; Raghunath 1987; Sawyer et al. 2003; Arumugam and Elangovan 2009). Average total hardness (as CaCO3) of the springs in the study area ranges from 147.40 to 547.60 mg/L. The classification of springs (Table 4) based on total hardness shows that a majority of the samples in region is Bhard.^ Therefore, according to TH, 66% of the samples in both periods are suitable for irrigation. But, Çaygözü (547.60 mg/L) and Deregözü (441.40 mg/L) springs were found Bvery hard^ for both periods. Also, the maximum allowable limit of TH for drinking purpose is 500 mg/L according to the WHO (2011) international standard. Also, groundwater exceeding the limit of 300 mg/L is considered to be very hard (Sawyer and McMcartly 1967). Exclusively, Çaygözü spring exceeds the maximum allowable limit of 500 mg/L. Sodium percentage (Na%) Sodium concentration plays an important role in evaluating the groundwater quality for irrigation because sodium causes an increase in the hardness of soil as well as a reduction in its permeability (Tijani 1994; Karanth 1989; Mohan et al. 2000). The Na% values range from 0.68 to 5.87% with an average value of 6.18% (Table 2). According to the Na% classification, springs are Bexcellent^ during dry and rain period (Table 4). Also, according to the relating sodium percentage and total concentration (Wilcox 1955), the spring samples are Bexcellent to good^ and springs are suitable for irrigation in both periods (Table 4). Salinity hazard (SH) and sodium adsorption ratio There is a significant relationship between SAR values of irrigation water and the extent to which sodium is adsorbed by the soils (Richards 1954). Also, measurement of salinity hazard is based on electrical conductivity, and it evaluates the SAR. The SAR values range from 0.01 to 0.08 meq/L in spring samples (Table 2). According to the SAR classification (Richards 1954; Todd 1980; Karanth 1987; Saleh et al. 1999), spring waters in the study area were determined Bexcellent^ quality in both periods because its SAR values are <10 meq/L. Also, according to the salinity hazard classification (Richards 1954), spring water are Bgood^ quality due to electrical conductivity values 250–750 μS/cm (Table 4). Also, Richards (1954) classification was used to evaluate the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes. The classification illustrates that most of the spring samples are C2S1 (Table 4), indicating medium salinity and low sodium water, and the spring waters can be used for irrigation. But, Çaygözü spring water samples fall in the field of C3S1 (Table 4), indicating high salinity and low sodium water, which can be used for irrigation on salt-tolerant plants; however, it is required to do drainage, because EC value of this spring (954 μS/cm) is very high.

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Residual sodium carbonate The RSC is defined as bicarbonate hazard. RSC equals the sum of the bicarbonate and carbonate ion concentrations minus the sum of the calcium and magnesium ion concentrations (Eaton 1950; Raghunath 1987). The classification of springs based on RSC values is from 1.37 to 2.70 (Table 2). Seasonal variations were observed in RSC values of springs. Spring samples are Bgood^ (Eaton 1950; Richards 1954; Raghunath 1987) in April and October periods. However, Deregözü and Çaygözü springs were defined Bdoubtful^ in October period (Table 4). Agricultural activities have been carried out around the springs in the investigation area. So, water quality of the springs is affected from the activities in this period. Then, the quality of water improves due to recharge of groundwater with rainwater. Therefore, the spring water samples are Bgood^ quality in April 2013 period. Residual sodium bicarbonate Concentration of bicarbonate and carbonate of irrigation water determines with RSC. The RSBC values of spring samples from the study area vary from −0.31 to 4.00 meq/L (Table 2). As per Gupta (1983) and Gupta and Gupta (1987) classification, all spring samples are Bsatisfactory^ (<5 meq/L) for irrigation in April and October 2013 periods (Table 4). Permeability index The PI is important parameter on the suitability for irrigation water. The index was calculated according to Doneen (1962) and Raghunath (1987). In the present study, the PI values range between 30.38 and 61.77 meq/L (Table 2). The result spring samples are class I according to Doneen (1964), and samples can be categorized as Bgood^ (Doneen 1964; Domenico and Schwartz 1990, Table 4). The spring samples from the study area were indicated as Bgood quality^ for irrigation purposes in both periods. Potential salinity PS is defined as the chloride concentration plus half of the sulfate concentration (Doneen 1962). The PS of the water samples varied from −0.05 to 0.09 meq/L (Table 2). As per Doneen (1962) classification, all spring samples are Bexcellent to good^ (<5 meq/L) for irrigation in April and October period (Table 4). Soluble sodium percentage SSP determines sodium hazard for irrigation (Todd 1995). Todd’s (1960) classification of SSP values ranges from 0.34 to 3.97 meq/L (Table 2), and spring samples are Bexcellent^ dry and rainy period for irrigation water (Table 4). Magnesium ratio In the many study, MR is identified as magnesium hazard (MH) and magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR). Paliwal (1972) introduced an important ratio called index of MH. Also, MR of irrigation water is proposed by Szabolcs and Darab (1964) and refined by Raghunath

748 Page 16 of 18

Arab J Geosci (2016) 9: 748

(1987). The MR values exceeding 50 meq/L is considered harmful and unsuitable for irrigation use. When the value is <50 meq/L, groundwater is suitable for irrigation (Table 4). Average MR was found in the range from 7.39 to 19.18 meq/L (Table 2) in the spring samples, and these spring waters are Bsuitable^ due to MR < 50 meq/L for irrigation in the study area (Table 4).

0.09 meq/L), soluble sodium percentage (SSP—0.34 to 3.97 meq/L), magnesium ratio (MR—7.39 to 19.18 meq/L), and Kelly’s ratio (KR—.00 to 0.04 meq/L) for irrigation purposes. In addition, springs evaluated as C2S1 to C3S1 class and Bexcellent to good^ category for irrigation. According to results of this investigation, springs in the study area could safely be used for long-term drinking and irrigation purposes.

Kelly’s ratio The KR of unity 1 is indicative of good quality of water for irrigation. Kelley (1963) suggested that this ratio for irrigation water should not exceed 1.0. Average KR was found in the range from 0.00 to 0.04 meq/L in spring samples (Table 2). In both periods, all spring waters are Bsuitable^ for KR < 1 meq/L for irrigation in the investigation area (Table 4).

Acknowledgements This study has been achieved under the scope of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK/2209-A), the project of University Students Research Projects Support Programme-2013.

Conclusion The present study evaluated the water quality of the Ağlasun– Başköy springs. Therefore, hydrochemical conditions and attributes to study area have been discussed in order to investigate the impact of drinking and irrigation of springs. The dominant water type of the Başköy springs is Ca-Mg-HCO3 facies. Natural mineralization and rock–water interaction processes of the springs evaluated in the study. Springs were supersaturated (SI > 0) with respect to apatite, aragonite, calcite, dolomite, kaolin, muscovite, and quartz. The water composition is controlled by the composition of sedimentary rocks in the basin and hydrologic characteristics such as the flow path and residence time. The geological framework and spatial repartition of chemical elements indicate an origin controlled by the dissolution of carbonate rocks. The spring samples have negative index for chloro-alkaline indexes (CAI I and II—46.48 to 0.51 and from −14.32 to 0.14, respectively) due to Cl < Na + K ions. When the indexes are negative, the ion exchange of Na+ and K+ from water with Mg2+ and Ca2+ in the rock is reverse and the exchange is indirect. Assessment of spring water samples according to exceeding the permissible limits prescribed by WHO and USEPA for drinking purposes indicated that springs in study area are chemically suitable for drinking uses. But, water quality of Çaygözü springs is unsuitable for drinking using conditions due to the high electrical conductivity and TDS values. The highest Cd concentration (30.79 μg/L) was observed at Küllük spring due to the geogenic contamination. Nutrient contents in the spring samples are suitable according to the drinking water standards. Physico-chemical parameters were calculated such as total hardness (TH—147.40 to 547.60 mg/ L), sodium percentage (Na%—0.68 to 42.55%), sodium absorption ratios (SAR—0.01 to 0.08 meq/L), residual sodium carbonate (RSC—−1.37 to 2.70 meq/L), residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC—−0.31 to 4.00 meq/L), permeability index (PI—30.38 to 61.77 meq/L) potential salinity (PS—−0.05 to

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