Pastoral Psychology, Vol. 42, No. 3, 1994

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy Alberta D. Wood, M.A. 1 and Maureen C. McHugh, Ph.D. 2

This paper examines the response of the church and the clergy to the problem of woman battering. A critical review of the theological foundations which may or may not contribute to violence directed toward females is presented. The research examining the response of the clergy to battered women is reviewed. Clergy report being confronted with the problem of woman battering and experiencing much difficulty in handling situations of this nature. In a study conducted by the authors, traditional attitudes were reflected by some modem day clergy; several clerical responses included female-blaming statements. More progressive clergy in this and other studies recognized woman battering as unacceptable; some are even studying ways to more effectively handle woman battering situations. A series of recommendations are included.

It has been estimated by The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence that somewhere between two and six million women are battered each year (Steese, 1988). Research has shown that battering occurs to women to various backgrounds; it is not limited to women of certain socioeconomic levels, or to women of certain racial and ethnic groups, or to specific religious denominations (Bowker, 1988; Gondolf, Fisher, McFerron, 1988; L. Walker, 1979). Some researchers believe that women learn to accept the violence, sometimes in a passive way (L. Walker, 1979). Yet others studying this problem believe the battered woman will avail herself of resources that are available, and that service agencies and institutions such as the police, the courts, etc., often fail to assist the battered woman (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988). Additionally, recognized helping resources presently available are not sufficient to provide the battered woman with the 1Summary of Master's Thesis, Indiana University of PA, Indiana, PA 15705. 2Associate Professor of Psychology, Indiana University of PA, Indiana, PA 15705. 185 © 1994 HumanSciencesPress,Inc.

186

Wood and McHugh

help she needs. For example, it is reported by The Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence (1992) that in 1990, 3,414 women and the 5,710 children of these women were turned away from the shelter program because of insufficient space. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV) (1992) reports that shelter turnaway statistics vary from state to state but that in urban areas as many as seven women are turned away for every one that is accepted. Therefore researchers are looking for new ways to meet the needs of the battered woman. Because churches are typically located within easy access to most people, some researchers are looking to the church as a possible source of help. For religious women or for active parishioners, the clergy may be the preferred source of assistance. However, information as to what happens when the clergy is sought as a source of help is very limited.

RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS AND WOMAN BATTERING The question of whether the church can be of help is thought-provoking, for Pagelow (1981) reports that the traditional church has always promoted male domination and accepted the rightness of the patriarchal/hierarchal order. Alternatively, working for the elimination of wife battering means working against the system of father's (husband's) rights supported by traditional belief systems and by societal institutions. This system is labeled patriarchy. Many feminists believe that religion perpetuates a patriarchal social structure and that such a system is supported by Scripture (Daly, 1973). Religious teachings have portrayed God as exclusively masculine: God the Father as Creator and Christ the Son as Head of the Church. Because of this symbolism, man becomes the head of the household and woman is relegated to a supportive role. It is man's right to be dominant and woman's duty to be submissive. This "Divine Plan" has been presented for centuries. Religion as well as every other major societal institution is influenced by patriarchy (Dobash & Dobash, 1988). In this way of thinking, men's lives, values, and attitudes are taken as the norm, and women's experiences are considered of less importance (Yllo, 1988). However, as women have become more educated and have gained greater economic status, they no longer tend to accept so freely the traditional ideas of male superiority and ownership (Nickles & Ashcraft, 1981; Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1974). Therefore, because of this religious heritage, is the church leader who seeks to help the battered woman possibly guilty of violating basic theological perspectives? J. M. Alsdurf and P. Alsdurf (1988) report that some pastors seem torn between concern for the battered female and theo-

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy

187

logical perspectives that appear to conflict with this concern. Are pastors who accept the Bible as the infallible Word of God in fact prevented from helping the battered woman? The Social Affairs Committee of the Quebec Assembly of Catholic Bishops (1989) has looked at this very serious dilemma and has sought to update the church's prevailing perception of women and their roles. Additionally, the National Council of Churches, which is made up of 32 denominations with 42 million members, has also been concerned with this dilemma ("Reverend," 1990). Dobash and Dobash (1988) believe that solutions to female battering need to include challenging the patriarchal form of domination at the institutional level. Ruth (1990) writes that the Judeo-Christian tradition, which for the most part makes up Western culture, is based on this patriarchal notion that God is male. The Bible is the text which has been used as a common and important source for moral guidelines and regulations for both Christians and Jews. Interpretations have varied, but the predominant message of most Judeo-Christian denominations has remained the same. That message is that women and men have different roles and that positions of leadership and authority are reserved explicitly for men.

RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS ON MARRIAGE Chittister (1984) says that it is clear that patriarchal religion has in the past validated violence against women by suggesting that they were property. In the traditional marriage pact the female vowed "to love, honor, and obey" and also assumed the male's name, which seems to confirm this idea (D. Martin, 1983). Christians, in order to keep this notion going, continually reinforced the ideas of male power and patriarchy with verses such as "Wives should submit to their husbands in everything" (Eph 5: 24). Wives were to obey and be in subjection because this was the moral order which made obedience sacred. Many churches stressed preserving the sacred marriage at all costs. In a sense then, many abused religious women were held captive by the church. Traditional ideas have also led women to think that the sole responsibility for a successful marriage rested with them (L. Walker, 1979). Even notions like being at fault for their husband's infidelity were not uncommon to women. Sexual desire or the lack of it always seemed to relate to the female's appeal with no thought as to whether the male was desirable. The implication was that no matter what went wrong in a marital relationship, the female was to blame. If husbands felt the need to be violent, it was their right. Women were taught that by enduring the suffering they were in fact gaining favor

188

Wood and McHugh

with God and would become heirs to the Kingdom. They must do everything possible to keep the marriage intact, for they had entered into a sacred contract which states that what God has joined together, let no man put asunder (Trembley, 1983). Traditionally, in this respect, the sanctity or value of the marriage came before the sanctity or value of the person. C. Walker (1987) believes that the Scriptures were used to suggest to women that by staying in an abusive situation they were following the model of Christ as suffering servant (1 Peter 2:19-21; Heb. 5:8; Phil. 2:8). Therefore the battered woman suffered incredible guilt if she went against this religious heritage even if it was to save her life (Clarke, 1986). Dobash and Dobash (1978) state that "Both the Church and the State supported the subordination of women in marriage and the husband's control over his wife; the Church through a moral order and the State through actively propagandizing for the authority of husbands and legitimizing their use of violence against wives" (p. 429). Thus, the "natural" inequality of women had been institutionalized.

THE CHURCH AND GENDER INEQUALITY As Scriptural verses continued to be used which implied female inferiority, the ideas of dominant/submissive sex roles were reinforced and maintained. These patterns of power and authority sanctioned by the church created an atmosphere for abuse (Katschke-Jennings, 1989). Sociologist David Finkelhor (1983) says the abuse of power occurs in the context of power inequities, i.e., a more powerful person takes advantage of a less powerful one; since traditional roles imply an inequality between the sexes, the conditions are ripe for abuse. The church, therefore, by confining women to an inferior position, unwittingly set the stage for abuse (Katschke-Jennings, 1989). To the extent that some clergy have preached a male-oriented theology and structure of marriage and have emphasized attitudes about woman's place, duty, and nature, they have served only to compound the problems of violence for women (Davidson, 1978). Religious teachings that have promoted subordination of women, not only to God but to men as well, need to be examined (Pagelow & Johnson, 1988). It is these teachings and the resulting patriarchal attitudes that have been incorporated into most every human institution in our society (Chittister, 1984; Christ, 1986). As a result, whether individuals are religious or not and whether or not they participate in the structure of patriarchal religion does not seem to matter. Even people that are totally secularized cannot escape the effect these teachings have had on society (Christ, 1986).

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy

189

The roles of men and women have been institutionalized and continue to influence and promote female inequality, which in turn sets the stage for violence. Many feminists believe the misapplication and misinterpretation of the Scriptures to be the root of this problem (Fiorenza, 1983; Ruether, 1983; Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1974; Thistlethwaite, 1981). Feminist theorists contend that violence against wives is historically structured into marriage under the patriarchal order and that religious influence in perpetuating this situation cannot be denied (Horton, Wilkins, & Wright, 1988). In addition, religion has kept the attitudes of male power maintained by the male-dominated language of the hymnal and by keeping the pulpit and positions of leadership somewhat closed to women (Katschke-Jennings, 1989). Bussert (1986) says the patriarchal/hierarchical structure of the family is an unfortunate legacy of the church's theological heritage. "If submission continues to be the theory, then battering will inevitably continue to be the practice" (p. 61). Cameron (1980) says that the degradation of women is the cornerstone of most religions, which has led some researchers to ask the question, "Is religion working for or against the battered female?" (Horton et al., 1988). P. Alsdurf and J. M. Alsdurf (1988) have reported that the church as an institution has been highly criticized for endorsing a system of beliefs which many believe to be the spawning ground for female abuse. Pastors, either directly or indirectly, have often preached patriarchy as God's designated order for the world. William Stacey, Anson Shupe, Lenore Walker, and several others report that women counseled by pastors are often quoted Scriptures on submission and reminded of their wifely duty to preserve the home (Stacey & Shupe, 1983; L, Walker, 1979). Therefore concern does not just rest with the frequency of female abuse itself but with the response the clergy gives to the battered female (Liaboe, 1985). Rita-Lou Clarke (1989) says that she has learned that traditional marriage counseling does damage to the battered woman. Pastoral counseling often seems to indicate that the responsibility for change rests with the victim.

THE CHURCH'S RESPONSE Some church officials themselves have been examining these very issues. One such group is the Social Affairs Committee of the Quebec Assembly of Catholic Bishops. This Committee published a document describing the types of violence against women, causes of this violence, and possible solutions to eliminate violence directed toward women. This document, entitled A Heritage of Violence (1989), reports that the church seeks

190

Wood and McHugh

to renew its theology in light of current findings and wishes to update the prevailing perception of women and their roles. The church is also seeking to recognize that men and women are equal partners with the same dignity in marriage, the workplace, and the church---even to the extent of appointing women to important positions within the dioceses. The writers of the document have also proposed that the church support the feminist movement, particularly since it can be credited with raising public awareness and denouncing unjust and unacceptable situations (Social Affairs Committee, 1989). Another group of church officials has also been examining this problem. At a 1990 meeting of the National Council of Churches, the Reverend Marie M. Fortune of the NCC's Commission on Family Ministries and Human Sexuality presented a resolution urging the church to confess its complicity in the problem of female abuse. She said the most dangerous place for a woman is in a relationship, and exhorted the Council to muster forces against the problem of female battering instead of hushing it. She cited the example of the Roman Catholic Priests in Quebec, Canada, and urged the National Council of Churches to take their lead. The Council, the nation's largest ecumenical organization, representing 32 denominations with 42 million members, accepted the resolution ("Reverend," 1990).

RESEARCH ON CLERICAL RESPONSE In 1982, groundbreaking research was conducted in Milwaukee by Bowker as he studied victim's accounts of clerical response. Fifty-nine women out of 146 reported that they had contacted the clergy concerning a wife-beating incident. According to the respondents, 93% of the clergy offered some sort of helping behaviors. The most common helping behavior was focused talking. Bowker reported that victims had experienced both positive and negative outcomes when seeking help from the clergy. Initially, the victims were more likely to contact the clergy, who were the second source of help sought, following the police. But after subsequent beatings, incidents of seeking out clergy declined. Bowker says this indicates that women abandoned the clergy as a help source after contacts with them proved to be relatively ineffective. Victims reported that the clergy as well as the police were ineffective after the first battering incident. When Bowker asked the victims to identify the most important help source they used to convince their husbands to stop the abuse, not one mentioned the clergy. In answer to another question concerning recommending a help

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy

191

source for a currently battered woman, only two recommended contacting the clergy. This sample was relatively small; Bowker (1988) subsequently enlarged his study of battered women's sources of help. The first 854 questionnaires he had returned he added to the Milwaukee study in order to have a base of 1000 women. Some of the findings from the second study, or Woman's Day study, contradicted his findings from the first study. Onethird of the women reported getting help from the clergy which Bowker says indicates the important role the clergy might have. He does not report how many women from the second group actually sought help, only that one-third got help. The women that did receive help were high in religiosity. As a group, when asked to give advice for the currently battered female, only 35 (out of 1000) women mentioned religious helps. They rated women's groups as the best help source, followed by shelters, lawyers, counselors, police, district attorneys, and finally the clergy. Bowker concluded that the clergy probably have more contact with battered women than previously thought but that their effectiveness is very limited. The clergy's endorsement of traditional teachings concerning the sacredness of the marriage pact and traditional sex roles as reviewed here may explain why they are not rated as effective in helping the battered female. In 1988, J. M. Alsdurf and P. Alsdurf, realizing that there was a lack of data from the clergy themselves in response to female abuse, sent out a two-page questionnaire to 5,700 pastors from Protestant churches throughout the United States and Canada. Fewer than ten percent of the questionnaires were returned. It was speculated that the pastors lacked interest in this problem or denied that it even existed. J. M. Alsdurf and P. Alsdurf (1988) reported that the pastors who did respond revealed being "concerned about battered women and yet torn by the theological perspectives that appear to conflict with this concern" (p. 167). This supports previous statements that the clergy's effectiveness is undermined by dogma. In 1989, a study conducted by S. Martin surveyed clergy of various denominations and synagogues in a suburban county in the state of Maryland. The purpose was to determine how much abuse comes to the clergy's attention, the response the clergy gives, and how local organizations might be able to provide the church with assistance. Pastors were surveyed concerning ways in which they alerted parishioners to the problem of female abuse, factors which tend to hamper addressing this problem, personal informational needs, etc. A total of 143 out of 313 surveys were returned. Martin found that across denominations, clergy do not take a proactive role in addressing woman battering; however, results indicated victims do seek out the clergy for help. Clergy of more liberal denominations, i.e.,

192

Wood and McHugh

those with female pastors and also those with more liberal views concerning female roles, counseled more victims than those clergy of denominations holding to more traditional perspectives. Significant in this study was the fact that those churches which addressed social problems in general, and those that had organized discussion groups, had in fact created an environment that encouraged victims to come forward for help. Their clergy most frequently reported giving information about treatment programs, providing counseling, and suggesting professional help. Advice which specifically violates the patriarchal system such as calling the police, getting a protection from abuse order, or leaving the abuser---was less frequently given. Clergy reported being hampered by their lack of counseling training, and by their limited knowledge of treatment programs, legal options, and programs for abusers. The results also indicated that more than half of the responding clerics acknowledged the need to improve efforts in addressing woman battering. A recent study conducted in 1992 by McHugh and Wood similar to those of J. M. Alsdurf and P. Alsdurf (1988) and S. Martin (1989), again attempted to explore the clerical response to woman battering. A six-page questionnaire, designed to be ambiguous as to intent and focus of the research, was sent to 200 clergy of various denominations in two counties of Pennsylvania. The study was introduced as an examination of the potential of clerical counseling to address family problems. Sixty questionnaires were returned by pastors from fourteen different Christian denominations (see Table I). Ninety percent of the participants in this study were male, ten percent were female. (J. M. Alsdurf & P. Alsdurf's sample (1988) was 99 percent male and one percent female.) Although respondents represented diverse educational backgrounds, fifty-five percent of the pastors reported a trainTable I. Survey Response Rates by Denomination

Denomination Baptist Catholic Lutheran Methodist Presbyterian Other Total

Number Sent

Number Received

Response by Denomination

Overall Percent of Sample

22 28 21 25 25 79

7 5 10 10 11 17

31.8% 17.9% 47.6% 40.0% 44.0% 21.5%

11.7% 8.3% 16.7% 16.7% 18.3% 28.3%

200

60

30.0%

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy

193

ing level which fell into the category of Master of Divinity degree. Fifty percent of the respondents reported receiving additional training in wife battering/abuse. Besides a variety of questions, pastors were asked to respond to two case studies. One case was fictitious, the second case (the target case) described an actual incident (also used by Harway, Hansen, & Cervantes, 1991) of woman battering in which the victim was subsequently killed by her abuser. (This fact was not revealed in the case.) The results of this study confirmed the fact that women are attempting to get help from the clergy for the problem of woman battering. A total of fifty pastors reported encountering wife battering/abuse and reported it to be among the most difficult of pastoral problems confronted. In response to the wife battering case, 70% of the pastors recommended taking secular action. Secular action may be viewed as the "correct" response since the wife in case two was subsequently killed by her abuser. Of the outside interventions recommended, 48% of the pastors specifically recommended going to a safe house or a domestic violence shelter. Clerics who had specialized training in wife battering/abuse were more likely to recommend that victims secure help from secular counseling agencies and shelters. A significant number of respondents (43%), including many who had received specialized training in wife battering/abuse, made victim-blaming statements. Here are some examples of the pastors' responses: "She needs to deal with the sin in her life." "She must learn her scriptural obligations in the home." "She needs to be apprised of her failure to make the marriage work." "Carol should first of all accept her responsibility as a wife . . . . She should lovingly confront her husband with his abuse problem." "I'd consider slapping around my 'Carol' as well." Similar to S. Martin's study (1989), only 12% of all pastors responding recommended arrest and 8% recommended a "Protection From Abuse Order." Of the pastors recommending arrest and P.F.A., no pattern could be found by denomination, degree of training, specialized training in wife battering/abuse, or county. J. M. Alsdurf and P. Alsdurf (1988) had concluded from their research that some clergy were torn between theological perspectives and secular solutions. Twenty-two percent of the pastors in the McHugh and Wood study (1992) reported being torn between theology and secular so-

194

Wood and McHugh

lutions, but only three percent reported wishing theology would be changed to fit the times.

RECOMMENDATIONS Pastors responding to the McHugh and Wood study (1992) suggested that clergy make a real attempt to network with available secular service agencies. Some suggested that pastors should give of their time to serve on the boards of various local helping agencies and also form pastoral support groups in order to share this work. Some suggested that the clerical profession be regulated and that pastors be required to update their knowledge. Most pastors expressed the desire for additional training, but reported being hampered by time constraints. The suggestion was made that in order to solve this problem, additional training be required before ordination. S. Martin (1989) suggests that one way to meet this educational need that is lacking would be for community groups which specialize in aiding abused women to actively reach out to local clergy by providing them with their expertise. S. Martin (1989) and Clarke (1986) further suggest that by raising the consciousness of the church community concerning abuse, pastors would be indirectly encouraging victims to come forward to secure the help they need. The Social Affairs Committee of the Quebec Assembly of Catholic Bishops (1989) also recommended that the clergy actively address the problem of woman battering in order to re-educate parishioners. The educational goals set forth by the Committee included: redefining the roles of both men and women, eliminating stereotypes and traditional roles, and emphasizing the need for both parents to take part equally in the nurturing, care, and development of their offspring. The ultimate goal was to make progress leading toward the liberation of women. This progress might further be achieved through P. Alsdurf and J. M. Alsdurf's suggestion (1988) that pastors focus on Scriptures that stress mutual respect, mutual submission, and mutuality in decision making, instead of teachings that address hierarchy, patriarchy, and submission. Clarke (1986) recommends that clergy become more aware of theological teachings that hold women in abusive situations and challenge these teachings. It was suggested that pastors offer new beliefs that are liberating; theology that can empower abused women. P. Alsdurf and J. M. Alsdurf (1988) believe that Scriptures addressing mutuality could provide that needed support system for battered women and also make men more accountable for their actions.

Woman Battering: The Response of the Clergy

195

REFERENCES Alsdurf, J. M., & Alsdurf, P. (1988). A pastoral response. In A. L. Horton & J. A. Williamson (Eds.), Abuse and religion: When praying isn "t enough (pp. 165-171). Massachusetts: Lexington Books. AIsdurf, P., & Alsdurf, J. M, (1988). Wife abuse and scripture. In A. L. Horton & J. A. Williamson (Eds.), Abuse and religion: When praying isn't enough (pp. 221-227). Massachusetts: Lexington Books. Bowker, L. H. (1982). Battered women and the clergy: An evaluation. The Journal of Pastoral Care, 36, (4), 226-234. Bowker, L. H. (1988). Religious victims and their leaders: Services delivered to one thousand battered women by the clergy. In A. L. Horton & J. A. Williamson (Eds.), Abuse and religion: When praying isn't enough (pp. 229-234). Massachusetts: Lexington Books. Bussert, J. M. K. (1986). Battered women: From a theology of suffering to an ethic of empowerment. New York: Division for Mission in North America, Lutheran Church in America. Cameron, A. (1980). The battered woman: Why does she stay? The Feminist Connection, 10: 12. Chittister, J. (1984). Divinely ordained. Sojourners, (13), 16-19. Christ, C. P. (1986). Why women need the Goddess. In J. B. Cole (Ed.), All American women (pp. 345-358). New York: The Free Press. Clarke, R. L. (1986). Pastoral care of battered women. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. Clarke, R. L. (1989). Hand-me-downs. Daughters of Sarah, 15: 7-9, Jan-F. Daly, M. (1973). Beyond God the Father. Boston: Beacon Press. Davidson, T. (1978). Conjugal crime: Understanding and changing the wifebeating pattern. New York: Hawthorn. Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1978). Wives: The 'appropriate' victims of marital violence. Victimology: An International Journal, 2 (3-4), 426-442. Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1988). Research as social action: The struggle for battered women. In K. Yllo and M. Bograd (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on wife abuse (pp. 51-74). Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Finkelhor, D. (1983). Common features of family abuse. In D. Finkelhor, R. J. Gelles, G. T. Hotaling, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research (pp. 11-16). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Fiorenza, E. S. (1983). In memory of her: A feminist theological reconstruction of Christian origins. Crossroad. Gondolf, E. W., & Fisher, E. (1988). Battered women as survivors: An alternative to treating learned helplessness. Lexington Books. Gondolf, E. W., Fisher, E., & McFerron, J. R. (1988). Racial differences among shelter residents: A comparison of Anglo, Black, and Hispanic battered. Journal of Fami(y Violence, 3 (1), 39-51. Harway, M., Hansen, M., & Cervantes, N. (1991). Therapist awareness of appropriate intervention in treatment of domestic violence. Violence and Victims. Horton, A. L., Wilkins, M. M., & Wright, W. (1988). Women who ended abuse: What religious leaders and religion did for these victims. In A. L. Horton & J. A. Williamson (Eds.), Abuse and religion: When praying isn't enough (pp. 235-246). Massachusetts: Lexington Books. Katschke-Jennings, B. (1989). Power and abuse: Working toward healthier relationships in the church. American Baptist Quarterly, 8." 268-275 D. Liaboe, G. P. (1985). The case of wife battering in considering divorce. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 13 (2), 129-138. Martin, D. (1983). Battered wives. New York: Pocket Books. Martin, S. E. (1989). Research note: The response of the clergy to spouse abuse in a suburban county. Violence and Victims, 4, (3), 217-225.

196

Wood and McHugh

McHugh, M. C., & Wood, A. D. (1992). Research note: The response of the clergy to woman battering. Unpublished Manuscript. Nickles, E., & Ashcraft, L. (1981). The facts of life. The coming matriarchy. Pagelow, M. D. (1981). Woman-battering: Victims and their experiences. Beverly Hills: Sage. Pagelow, M. D., & Johnson, P. (1988). Abuse in the American family: The role of religion. In A. L. Horton & J. A. Williamson (Eds.), Abuse and religion: When praying isn't enough (pp. 1-12). Massachusetts: Lexington Books. Reverend asks churches to stop family violence. (1990, May 18). The Indiana Gazette, p. 3. Ruether, R. R. (1983). Sexism and God-talk: Toward a feminist theology. Beacon Press. Ruth, S. (1990). Issues in feminism: An introduction to women's studies. California: Mayfield Publishing Company. Scanzoni, L., & Hardesty, N. (1974). All we're meant to be: A Biblical approach to women's liberation. Word Books. Social Affairs Committee of the Assembly of Quebec Bishops (1989). A heritage of violence? (A. l(iniough, Trans.). Quebec, Canada: Psilog Inc. Bibliography. Stacey, W. A., & Shupe, A. (1983). The ramie, secret. Boston: Beacon Press, Steese, E. (1988). What statistics and shelters say about battered women. In E. Gondolf's, Man against woman. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books Inc. Thistlethwaite, S. B. (1981). Battered women and the Bible: From subjection to liberation. Christianity and Crisis, Nov. 16. Trembley, D. (1983). Breaking the silence. Christianity and Crisis, 43: 39-40, Feb 21. Walker, C. T. Sr. (1987). A Christian perspective of God and suffering: Particularly in family violence/spouse abuse. The A. M. E. Zion Quarterly Rev&w, 22-37, O. Walker, L. (1979). The battered woman. New York: Harper and Row. Yllo, K. (1988). Political and methodological debates in wife abuse research. In K. Ylio & M. Bograd (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on wife abuse (pp. 28-50). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.