A N EVALUATION OF EXISTING RESIDENTIAL LAYOUT DESIGN APPROACHES IN ZIMBABWE A N D S U G G E S T I O N S FOR ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES CELIA A. DAVISON

BACKGRO UND The planning system in Zimbabwe has been modeled on the British system. Britain was the colonial power in the Southern African region and its planning concepts, principles, and legislation have had a major influence in shaping towns and cities in the region. In Zimbabwe, the present planning system developed from bylaws and public health ordinances established by Sanitary Boards originally set up in 1892 to administer municipal areas. With the passing of the first Town Planning Act in 1933, urban local authorities had powers to guide and control land use and any other development in urban areas through the preparation of town planning schemes. This Act was replaced by the 1945 Act where the aim was to prepare town planning schemes that focused on the subdivision of land and the control of development to ensure the maximum practicable degree of economy, convenience and beauty (Wekwete,1987). The Regional Town and Country Planning Act of 1976 (revised and updated in 1996) replaced the 1945 Act and guides and controls d e v e l o p m e n t through a system of master and local plans. This system is concerned largely with the preparation of plans which attempt to reshape the physical environment of a community through the ordered siting of land uses and facilities in r e l a t i o n to t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e t w o r k (Sparrow, 1979). An examination of the town planning schemes and local plans reveals that they are "designed to give local authorities enforceable powers to control in very great detail various types of development which could be permitted in the different areas shown on the map" (Sparrow, 1979: 256). These controls included the width and alignment of streets, and the number, spacing, design, and external appearance of buildings (Rakodi, 1995).

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Physical planning, before independence in 1980, used schemes and local plans to zone land for specific land uses and to control rigidly the use of residential areas for use by different racial groups. This resulted in residential environments for whites and blacks that were very different in spatial form and character and with differing levels of development control in the built e n v i r o n m e n t . After i n d e p e n d e n c e in 1980, instead of suburbs or neighbourhoods being identified in terms of their use by either blacks or whites, they are now defined by the density of development, which reflects the level of income of their inhabitants and the character of the built environment. In addition, since independence, significant changes have taken place in the actual form and character of these areas. Generally, the former 'white' suburbs have retained their low density character with wide roads and high levels of infrastructural services. However, as real incomes dwindle in response to macro economic instability and high inflation, increasingly informal sector activities are appearing on plots and on the roadsides. There is also great pressure on the vlei, or wetland areas, for in-fill housing developments. The former'black' suburbs have retained their high density character but have changed in response to their rapidly growing populations and the increasing levels of unemployment. This has resulted in a mushrooming of informal sector business, trading and industries, informal housing largely in the form of backyard shacks, urban agriculture and, livestock keeping. These changes in the character of residential areas have important implications for urban design in Zimbabwe. The urban d e v e l o p m e n t plans currently in place and carefully implemented on the ground are based on a variety of imported Western planning models and experiences such as the Garden City, Radburn, Neighbourhood Unit, and Environmental Area concepts (Materu, 1993). These concepts are no longer relevant to the changes that have and are taking place and which are affected by "the change from a residential environment to a multipurpose environment ... this shift has infrastructural space and superstructural impacts with resultant knock on effects on public health, safety and convenience as well as function, economy, efficiency, compatibility and aesthetics" (Kamete, 1999:144). This paper urban design cial, political, enabling and

will examine the existing planning system that has guided in Zimbabwe and evaluate it in relation to the changing soand economic environment with a view to suggesting a more responsive approach to urban design.

APPROACHES TO URBAN DESIGN IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS The design of residential layouts in Zimbabwe have been influenced by a number of guiding principles drawn from traditional British approaches to design. These approaches to layout design all have overriding concerns for:

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The creation of quality/responsive urban environments which consider social, economic and aesthetic issues. The facilitation of transport and circulation within neighbourhoods and between neighbourhoods and the wider environment. The development of community facilities and amenities through the identification of appropriate locations. The facilitation of infrastructure provision within layouts (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

Before i n d e p e n d e n c e in 1980, these approaches w e r e applied to the preparation of all residential layouts but w e r e m a i n l y u s e d for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s u b u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s for essentially w h i t e colonial settlers, w h i c h catered for low p o p u l a t i o n densities, d e t a c h e d d w e l l i n g s w i t h private o p e n space, and inhabitants with high mobility. The a p p r o a c h to layout design in the low d e n s i t y / w h i t e areas varied over the years. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was an influx of i m m i g r a n t s into the country, w h i c h r e s u l t e d in a lot of pressure to prepare subdivision plans. These plans w e r e largely b a s e d on a grid iron form of layout. In the 1970s, there was a m o v e away from grid iron layouts with design b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by the visions of the G a r d e n City M o v e m e n t and R a d b u r n principles of design. These designs p r o m o t e d quiet residential areas w i t h o u t extraneous traffic and public spaces d e s i g n e d as an integral part of the layout. These principles w e r e u s e d in the design of M a b e l r e i g n in Harare in the 1970s. The overall result of this design ethic was the d e v e l o p m e n t of s p r a w l i n g city/town forms t h r o u g h o u t Z i m b a b w e , with large areas of land given over to spacious, pleasant, low- d e n s i t y residential areas s u r r o u n d i n g the m a i n t o w n centres. A l t h o u g h these a p p r o a c h e s w e r e also applied to black t o w n s h i p layouts, the g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s h e r e w e r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h e f f i c i e n c y a n d e c o n o m y and the restrictive use of land for residential use and o t h e r purposes, such as schools, n e i g h b o u r h o o d shops, clinics, etc. Little a t t e n t i o n was paid to the location of such areas in relation to places of work, o t h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , and the w i d e r u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t as a w h o l e , with m a n y of the ' t o w n s h i p ' o r h i g h - d e n s i t y , l o w - i n c o m e areas b e i n g located on the fringe of the m a i n u r b a n areas. Consequently, levels of accessibility to and from these areas was and is poor, w i t h r e s i d e n t s h a v i n g to s p e n d large a m o u n t s of time and m o n e y traveling to their places of w o r k and to the t o w n centre for a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n their basic e v e r y d a y n e e d s . In Z i m b a b w e , the use of t h e s e traditional a p p r o a c h e s to d e s i g n are no longer appropriate. Restrictive controls put in place by the urban planning and management system have been overtaken by events. The system failed to anticipate and even ignored the new challenges brought about by the post-independence socio-political and economic situation. The resultant influx of unemployed people into the urban centres signalled a rude awakening for the inadequacies and inappropriateness of the operative land use controls (Kamete, 1999: 147).

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The reality of t h e u r b a n s i t u a t i o n in m a n y t o w n s in Z i m b a b w e is t h a t p o p u l a t i o n densities are high, levels of p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t are high, a n d t h e r e is extensive spatial inequality. In a d d i t i o n , l i m i t e d financial res o u r c e s exacerbate the ability of the a u t h o r i t i e s to p r o v i d e a n d m a i n t a i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d services for their g r o w i n g u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s . There is a n e e d , therefore, to shift c o n c e r n s away f r o m d e s i g n s o l u t i o n s t h a t only c o n sider t e c h n i c a l a n d cost efficiency t o w a r d s d e s i g n s t h a t also p r o v i d e g u i d ance o n p r o g r e s s i v e s o l u t i o n s to key p l a n n i n g issues t h a t affect o u r u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s . Such issues include: • •

• • • •

The integration of economic opportunity into designs so that greater consideration is given to facilitating employment generation. The promotion of mixed uses through a mixture of stand sizes and land tenure, and through a movement away from single-use neighbourhoods. In this respect zoning controls should be reconsidered and consideration given to the"artificial exclusion of incompatible and unwanted functions" (Kamete, 1999:147). This would facilitate the development of more varied spatial forms and give greater choice of work, schooling, and social activities within individual areas thus reducing the amount that less mobile people and low income families would need to move to get the services they want. "Mixed use and high density is now considered to be a major factor contributing to sustainable development" (Brown, 2000:40). Creating an environment which is accessible to the majority of residents through the facilitation of greater pedestrian access and public transport. A more pragmatic approach to increasing land availability through the sharing of facilities and services, and innovative ways of servicing urban development outside of official budgets (Materu, 1993). The integration of variety and scope for different users and activities in different locations and different times of day (Brown, 2000). This would include planning for urban agriculture and other ways of alleviating urban poverty. The promotion of public participation, in particular by women, in the plan making and implementation process (Materu, 1993).

Existing a p p r o a c h e s to plan m a k i n g a n d u r b a n d e s i g n in Z i m b a b w e fail to r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s e issues, a n d t h e r e is a n e e d to e x a m i n e t h e r e g u l a t o r y f r a m e w o r k a n d p l a n n i n g g u i d e l i n e s w i t h a view to f i n d i n g a n e w d e s i g n a p p r o a c h t h a t is m o r e r e s p o n s i v e to p r o v i d i n g liveable a n d appropriate environments.

THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN GUIDELINES IN Z I M B A B W E A d e s i g n g u i d e is a general set of d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s a n d s t a n d a r d s req u i r e d by t h e local a u t h o r i t y a n d a p p l y i n g to a w i d e area a n d n o t just a particular site (Biddulph, 1996: 145). In Z i m b a b w e , d e s i g n g u i d e s a n d circulars are p r e p a r e d by central gove r n m e n t a n d local p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i t i e s in o r d e r to give d e s i g n guidance for

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the detailed development of residential areas in accordance with any policies and proposals set out in an operative development plan for an area. These design guides and circulars have been prepared in response to government policy on residential development, particularly in high-density, low-income areas, and have been prepared in order to ensure that layout development in such areas is efficient and cost-effective. The design guides and circulars give detailed information on standards of development and the way in which land can be subdivided and set out in relation to the site itself and the road network to ensure technical efficiency and affordability. These guides supplement the zoning requirements for an area, as set out in an operative master or local plan for an area. The statutory zoning plan gives development control details regarding use of land, m i n i m u m size of stands, building height, coverage and building lines, etc., for an area. In higher-income, low-density areas development and design is controlled mainly by the development control provisions of the statutory plan operating for the area, although the design guidelines will still be used to influence the subdivision layouts of large areas of land. The majority of the design guides were prepared in the 1970s w h e n there was growing concern for the provision of better and more affordable housing areas for lower-income groups. Prior to this, the pressure for housing for lower-income groups (the majority of w h o m were black) was not considered a priority, as only those w ho were legally employed in towns were allowed to reside there. Thus, h i g h - d e n s i t y / l o w - i n c o m e residential areas were seen merely as dormitory suburbs/townships, with the colonial authorities being insensitive to the d e m a n d s of such residents for better environments (Kamete, 1999). This growing concern for providing better and more affordable housing resulted in research being u n d e r t a k e n by the D e p a r t m e n t of Physical Planning and the Housing Development Services Branch in the Ministry of Local G o v e r n m e n t a nd H o u s i n g on d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s t h a t w o u l d be appropriate for low-cost housing areas. This research, which started prior to i n d e p e n d e n c e but was continued after 1980, resulted in a n u m b e r of manuals and circulars being produced to assist local authorities and other bodies responsible for the preparation of housing layouts. These publications include: • • • • •

"Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments in Zimbabwe" (MLGH, 1981). "Design Approach to Roads and Stormwater Problems Relative to High Density Housing Developments in Zimbabwe" (MLGH and BCO'D, 1981). "Design Approach to Water and Sewerage problems Relative to Urban (predominately high density) and Rural Communities in Zimbabwe'(MLGH and BCO'D, 1982). "Infrastructure Design Standards In Zimbabwe" (MLGH and UNCHS, 1982). "Planning and Subdivision Standards in Zimbabwe" (MLGH and UNCHS, 1982).

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These publications were supplemented from time to time by a number of guidelines in the form of regulations, standards and circulars issued from the Department of Physical Planning in the Ministry of Local Government and National Housing and the Housing Branch in the Ministry of Public Construction and National Housing. Circular no.3 of 1992 on"Revised Minimum Building Standards for Medium and Low Cost Housing" was issued by the Ministry of Public Construction and National Housing. This circular revised the minimum building standards relating to the planning, infrastructure, and superstructure for medium- and low-cost housing. The standards defined in this circular are still relevant for all site planning carried out in low-income, high-density areas. In 1996, the Department of Physical Planning (DPP) in the Ministry of Local Government and National Housing (MLGH) issued a"Layout Design Manual for High Density Residential Development". In 1999, the Department of Physical Planning produced a Layout Design Manual based on the manuals of 1981 and 1996 for use by its provincial offices when preparing layout plans. All of these design guides have been "dedicated to the creation of efficient and affordable layouts for high density housing" (MLGH/DPP, 1996). The design guide publications of the Housing Development Services Branch in the Ministry of Local Government and National Housing (see MLGH and BCO'D, 1981and 1982 above), are concerned mainly with ensuring high standards of geometric design for road layouts, and the structural design of stormwater drainage, sewerage, and water supply. The"Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Development in Zimbabwe" p u b l i s h e d by the same Branch is concerned primarily with the economics of design and the effect of infrastructural design on development costs. The layout design manual (1996), however, is less concerned with the geometric standards of road and technical efficiency of infrastructure services and more with the creation of quality urban environments. This is to be achieved through the incorporation of considerations for resident satisfaction and affordability, by seeking to achieve a balance between social aspirations, the need for value for money from a development, and the desire for e n v i r o n m e n t a l conservation in the design of h o u s i n g layouts (MLGH/DPP 1996). The recent design manual of 1999 again highlights the key elements of layout design and the need to minimise costs of layout plan implementation, and it provides the current planning standards to be used for residential, commercial, and industrial uses in both rural and urban areas. Donor agencies, in particular USAID and the World Bank, have given significant financial support to low-cost housing development in Zimbabwe since 1980. For example, the World Bank financed the Urban I and II

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programme which saw the development of a large number of low-income houses in urban centres in the country. Consequently, donor organisations have had a major influence on housing policy in Zimbabwe and on housing standards and design, particularly with issues relating to the minimum size of subdivision, size of house on the plot, use of building lines and coverage of the plot, width of roads, and levels of affordable infrastructure. The preparation of the "Layout Design Manual for High Density Residential Developments" (MLHG/DPP, 1996) was carried out in conjunction with USAID, who brought in consultants to work with the Department of Physical Planning on the manual. In addition to introducing the concept of balanced sustainable development, they have developed a model for costing layout design in Zimbabwe in terms of its efficiency and affordability, which is explained in detail in the manual. Since 1996, little change has occurred in terms of the guidance given to local authorities on layout design, although the Department of Physical Planning is concerned that the minimum housing standards for high-density housing, as defined in Circular no. 3 of 1992, may be inappropriate, given the fact that the Zimbabwean housing market continues to be characterised by high demand and low supply. In relation to this, the Department of Physical Planning has recently commissioned a study to investigate minimum standards for high-density, low-cost housing. This study suggests that minimum stand sizes should be reduced from 150m 2 to 60m 2 if low cost affordable housing for the lowest income groups are to be substantially satisfied. In addition, circular no. 11 of 2000 has been issued, which revises the standards for primary and secondary schools. The stand sizes for schools have been reduced in order to increase land availability for housing construction in urban areas.

EVALUATION OF DESIGN GUIDELINES IN ZIMBABWE The two main design manuals currently used by physical planners in Zimbabwe are the "Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Development in Zimbabwe" (MLGH, 1981) and the "Layout Design Manual for High Density Residential Developments" (MLGH/DPP 1996). These will be evaluated in relation to the guiding principles established by the traditional approaches to residential layout design, such as the Garden City, Radburn, Neighbourhood Unit, and Environmental Area concepts. These are concerned with the creation of quality/responsive urban environments, the facilitation of transport and circulation w i t h i n neighbourhoods and between neighbourhoods, the development of public facilities and amenities, and the facilitation of infrastructure provision within layouts. These principles have provided a basis for urban design in Zimbabwe and this evaluation will identify the design issues that are no longer

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relevant and those that can achieve enabling and responsive environments for current living conditions in Zimbabwe.

Responsive~Quality Urban Environments The Garden City concept was used extensively in urban areas by planners in the 1950s and 1960s to promote quality living environments for its dwellers by encouraging lower residential densities, large areas of open space, and centralised public facilities through the creation of self-contained residential units of a certain size. In Zimbabwe, this type of urban environment was developed in the high-income, low-density areas, which were originally designed for the more privileged white population. It does not exist in the low- income, high-density residential areas where it was neither financially unattainable nor sustainable. This concept is not relevant in urban areas in Zimbabwe where there is rapid population growth, and in the high-density residential areas where incomes are low and housing provision is limited and inadequate. These factors result in deteriorated urban environments where infrastructure facilities and services are poor; where squatting and overcrowding are common, especially in the form of backyard shacks; and where there is little quality private or public open space. Where spaces exist they are used for a multitude of activities, such as vending, informal manufacturing of goods, urban agriculture, and the dum pi ng of rubbish. The n e e d to provide hous i ng areas for large n u m b e r s of low income people in Zimbabwe has resulted in a preoccupation by planners and administrators to provide urban designs that are cost effective rather than responsive, as this ensures that available resources are utilised to benefit the greatest number of people. The consequence of this and the segregatory policies of the p r e i n d e p e n d e n c e period are a proliferation of standardised, low-income, poor-quality housing areas on the periphery of urban areas. Such areas have been designed to adhere strictly to a hierarchy of roads which create pockets of stands ranging in size from 150m 2 to 300m 2, served by standard facilities in locations which are often far from places of employment and are not easily accessible to people on foot. In addition, the strict control of uses, which artificially exclude the use of residential areas for anything other than housing and its related functions, means such areas are insensitive to the needs of low-income households w h o n e e d to undertake other economic activities that help them to survive. The design guides produced prior to i n d e p e n d e n c e and soon after 1980 paid little attention to creating environments that were responsive to social, economic, and aesthetic concerns, or which would improve the quality of life for the people living in them. The manual "Principles of Planning and Layout Design for High Density Residential D e v e l o p m e n t " (MLGH,

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1981) was c o n c e r n e d m o r e w i t h delivering large n u m b e r s of small, affordable, serviced stands with s t a n d a r d core h o u s e s set in sterile e n v i r o n m e n t s . More recently, however, physical p l a n n e r s have placed greater e m p h a s i s on p r o m o t i n g layout designs that r e s p o n d to local needs. Such designs place i m p o r t a n c e on the provision of spaces for informal activities, the d e r e g u l a tion of controls that limit the type of uses allowed on residential stands, provide i m p r o v e d access b e t w e e n facilities and services, and generally s h o w greater c o n c e r n for c o m m u n i t i e s and their n e e d s in their u r b a n environment. In this respect, the design m a n u a l p r o d u c e d in 1996 has m o v e d in this direction and e n c o u r a g e s physical e n v i r o n m e n t s that instill a sense of c o m m u n i t y within the resident p o p u l a t i o n (MLGH/DPP, 96). However, despite this, little a t t e n t i o n has b e e n paid to creating i n t e g r a t e d h i g h e r density settlements with a mixture of stand sizes and tenure, and increased choice in the variety of services and activities available in one n e i g h b o u r h o o d , nor to the e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s that are created by concentrations of large n u m b e r s of people living in one area. There is still too much concern with promoting single density and single-use n e i g h b o u r h o o d s (Brown, 2000), with stands laid out in n e a t lines and served by m i n i m u m standards of roads and reticulated w a t e r and s e w e r a g e services. In this respect, m o r e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be paid to creating c o m p a c t s e t t l e m e n t patterns that reduce the n e e d for people to travel and for varied e n v i r o n m e n t s that m e e t the n e e d s of l o w - i n c o m e h o u s e h o l d s to g e n e r a t e additional income. This can be achieved through: • •

•

•

The design of multifunctional roads that can provide opportunities for a variety of informal activities to locate along them, and encourage a variety of users and easy accessibility between different facilities and areas. The provision of a variety of housing types, stand sizes, and delivery processes which enable the development of housing by low-income families and facilitate the extended family system and the accommodation of lodgers. The provision of hard open spaces where intensive, informal, commercial, and service industrial activities can take place and where collective services (e.g., water standpipes, telephone booths, post-boxes, public toilets, etc.) are located. The clustering of public facilities to encourage resource sharing (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

Greater c o n c e r n for providing o p p o r t u n i t i e s and choices in terms of the delivery of land and h o u s i n g processes and m o r e responsive p l a n n i n g designs that provide choices in the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of stands, h o u s i n g types, public facilities, informal activities, service provision, and m o v e m e n t and circulation patterns will enable i n h a b i t a n t s of a n e i g h b o u r h o o d to access a better quality of life, rather t h a n a c o n c e r n with the provision of tranquil g a r d e n suburbs as e s p o u s e d by the G a r d e n City concept.

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The Radburn, Neighbourhood, and Environmental Area concepts have had a strong influence on the design principle that establishes residential areas with a hierarchy of roads which discourage extraneous traffic from passing through an area and limits access to houses through a system of cul-de-sacs. These concepts restrict the movement of large volumes of traffic to distributor routes and assume that every road within a road network will have a constant function over time. They have also emphasised the need to concentrate movement on certain routes to localised facilities within a single neighbourhood. The design manuals used in Zimbabwe promote these concepts through placing great importance on the establishment of a road hierarchy and network of roads whose function determines its standard size. The intention here is to"improve m o v e m e n t efficiency and protect residential areas from disturbance" (MLGH, 1981). Higher order roads are intended to carry larger volumes of traffic compared to lower order roads, and the servitude/road reservation sizes vary according to the order of road. The most important principle of road design in Zimbabwe is to reduce costs and this is achieved by reducing the total length of higher order roads compared to that of lower order roads. The manuals provide details on the ideal proportion of different sizes of road to ensure cost efficiency in layout design. For example, the manuals state that the accepted proportional distribution of the total road network for low-income, high-density residential areas are 70 percent for stand access roads/footpaths, 25 percent for local distributors, and 5 percent for district distributors. The manuals also provide details on the most cost efficient pattern of roads to use in residential areas. To achieve cost savings on road infrastructure, open road networks (i.e. grid patterns) are preferred for higher classes of road, and loops,'p'loops, and culs-de-sac, or closed road systems, which limit access and extraneous traffic into residential stand areas, are preferred for lower order roads. The m a n u a l s also p r o m o t e road d esig n s w h i c h minimise opportunities for conflict by reducing the n u m b e r of intersections, promote 'T' junctions rather than cross roads, and limit the n u m b e r of junctions between higher order roads and lower order roads. A problem with many of the housing layouts produced in Zimbabwe is that the circulation systems seem to be more heavily biased towards private vehicular ownership than the more prevalent forms of m o v e m e n t used by the majority of residents, which are by foot, bicycle, buses, and minibuses. Pedestrian ways are provided, but often these duplicate existing road access and appear to have been added to developments at a later stage. In addition, pedestrian m o v e m e n t is often only facilitated to the main shops or local school and not to higher order facilities, such as district shopping centres, hospitals, and government offices outside the n e i g h b o u r h o o d area.

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In lower i n c o m e areas, t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e r e s i d e n t s are d e p e n d e n t on either public t r a n s p o r t or walking. A survey carried o u t by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Zimbabwe and the Transport Research Laboratory between 1993-1996 s h o w e d t h a t w a l k i n g c o n t i n u e s to be t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m o d e of travel w i t h 42 p e r c e n t of all trips b e i n g r e c o r d e d for this m o d e . It also s h o w e d t h a t in 1996 t h e r e was a p e r c e n t a g e increase in t h e u s e of c o m m u t e r o m n i b u s e s from 4 p e r c e n t in 1993 to 21 p e r c e n t a n d that t h e share for Z i m b a b w e U n i t e d P a s s e n g e r C o m p a n y ( Z U P C O ) b u s e s a n d e m e r g e n c y taxis d e c l i n e d d u r i n g this period. Private car u s a g e i n c r e a s e d f r o m 14 p e r c e n t to 18 p e r c e n t bet w e e n 1994 a n d 1996 (Mbara a n d M a u n d e r , 1997). This m e a n s t h a t t h e layo u t plan s h o u l d r e s p o n d to this a n d p r o m o t e a road n e t w o r k t h a t will be d e s i g n e d to facilitate t h e m o v e m e n t of large v o l u m e s of p e d e s t r i a n a n d c o m m u t e r bus traffic, r a t h e r t h a n o n l y private v e h i c u l a r traffic. S u c h layouts s h o u l d give easier p e n e t r a t i o n for t h e s e m o d e s of travel into h o u s i n g areas a n d e n s u r e g r e a t e r linkage for t h e s e m o d e s b e t w e e n uses. The c u r r e n t e m p h a s i s o n e n c o u r a g i n g larger v o l u m e s of traffic to use d i s t r i b u t o r roads a n d r e s t r i c t i n g traffic o n t h e l o w e r o r d e r r o a d s d o e s n o t reflect the way in w h i c h v e h i c u l a r m o v e m e n t occurs in m a n y r e s i d e n t i a l areas, in particular h i g h - d e n s i t y areas. With t h e a d v e n t of c o m m u t e r o m n i b u s e s , an i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r of p e o p l e are b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d by collective m i n i b u s e s , r a t h e r t h a n formal buses. This has r e s u l t e d in an i n c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t of s t o p - s t a r t traffic, especially m i n i b u s e s , t h a t m o v e a l o n g d i s t r i b u tors a n d collector r o a d s and, i n d e e d , any size of road to pick u p p a s s e n gers. The i m p a c t of this on layout d e s i g n is t h a t certain r o a d s can no l o n g e r be a s s u m e d to be u s e d for certain f u n c t i o n s . Roads, in particular t h o s e in h i g h d e n s i t y r e s i d e n t i a l areas, h a v e a diverse range of road users a n d s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , be d e s i g n e d to serve t h e variety of n e e d s of t h e s e users: The frequent use of stretches of roadway for hailing and alighting from minibuses, the use of roads adjacent to bus and rail stations as minibus ranks and the common use of roads by street traders, especially at intersections are examples of this (Behrens and Watson, 1997:40). Thus, t h e road n e t w o r k s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d to facilitate t h e v a r i e t y of n e e d s of users t h r o u g h t h e p r o v i s i o n of m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l s p i n e / d i s t r i b u t o r roads c o n n e c t e d to a n e t w o r k of collector roads w h o s e j u n c t i o n p o i n t s c o u l d be u s e d for i n f o r m a l m a r k e t places or as s t o p p i n g places for m i n i b u s e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e e m p h a s i s o n c r e a t i n g a r o a d n e t w o r k t h a t facilitates m o v e m e n t a n d accessibility w i t h i n o n e n e i g h b o u r h o o d area d o e s n o t acc o u n t for t h e i n c r e a s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t of p e o p l e in o n e n e i g h b o u r h o o d w h o have to m o v e to a n o t h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d to find services that are n o t available in their own. The rapid p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h that has taken place in m a n y

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h i g h - d e n s i t y areas in Z i m b a b w e a n d lack of adequate facilities of all kinds, especially those of schools and clinics, results in people having to m o v e away from their residential area for these facilities. This results in p e o p l e having to cross major arterial roads that separate one n e i g h b o u r h o o d from a n o t h e r to reach public facilities in adjoining areas. For example, in K u w a d z a n a e x t e n sion in Harare, the lack of s c h o o l s a n d s h o p s offering a r a n g e of g o o d s results in people having to travel to the m a i n t o w n or to n e i g h b o u r i n g areas for these facilities, which are well over 1 kilometre away from their h o m e s . The lack of appropriate pedestrian and other access ways across such roads severely c o m p r o m i s e s road safety on arterials and adds to their c o n g e s t i o n . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m of l i m i t i n g e x t r a n e o u s traffic to d i s t r i b u t o r r o a d s is t h a t this d o e s n o t facilitate t h e m o v e m e n t of p e o p l e i n t o access r o a d s w h e r e i n f o r m a l street traders are active. This p r e v e n t s local t r a d e r s f r o m g a i n i n g access to n o n - l o c a l c o n s u m e r s . It is, therefore, of g r e a t e r a d v a n t a g e in lowi n c o m e areas, w h e r e p e d e s t r i a n a n d public t r a n s p o r t m o d e s p r e d o m i n a t e , to use o p e n r o a d n e t w o r k s (i.e., s t a g g e r e d grids a n d loops), r a t h e r t h a n closed n e t w o r k s , to facilitate s u c h m o v e m e n t to all activities t h r o u g h o u t an area. O p e n n e t w o r k s are also m o r e a d a p t i v e to c h a n g e s in public transp o r t r o u t i n g , as t h e y p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r n u m b e r a n d l o c a t i o n of s t o p p i n g p o i n t s t h a n closed systems. The n u m e r o u s i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s of an o p e n s y s t e m p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t r a d i n g for i n f o r m a l traders (Behrens a n d Watson, 1997). Such n e t w o r k s are m o r e p e r m e a b l e - - t h a t is, t h e y give m o r e choices to p e o p l e of t h e r o u t e s or m e a n s of travel to m a k e a journey. This facilitates t h e m i x i n g of t h r o u g h a n d local traffic w i t h p e d e s t r i a n m o v e m e n t s , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s social i n t e r a c t i o n , c o m m e r c e , a n d trade a l o n g all roads. Thus, roads have a m u l t i p l i c i t y of f u n c t i o n s w h i c h are: • • • •

To provide To provide To provide To provide

for the movement of goods and people. access to property. locations for drainage and utilities. space for social interaction, commerce and trade ( Brown, 2000).

P l a n n e r s in Z i m b a b w e n e e d to e v a l u a t e c o m m u n i t y n e e d s in o r d e r to r e d e f i n e the existing s t a n d a r d s a n d criteria for t h e d e s i g n of r o a d s a n d r o a d n e t w o r k s to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t t h e y are serving t h e s e n e e d s . In m a n y areas, t h e use of roads for a variety of f u n c t i o n s , o t h e r t h a n t h o s e for w h i c h t h e y w e r e d e s i g n e d , affects the c h a r a c t e r of an area. The i m p a c t of this a n d t h e effectiveness of existing roads to cater for diverse f u n c t i o n s n e e d s to be a s s e s s e d so that m o r e r e s p o n s i v e r o a d n e t w o r k d e s i g n s can be a c h i e v e d .

Public Facility and Amenity Provision The N e i g h b o u r h o o d Unit, R a d b u r n , a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l Area c o n c e p t s e m p h a s i s e t h e n o t i o n of spatially d e f i n e d c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e

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of identifying appropriate locations for public facilities and amenities. In Z i m b a b w e , these concepts are very influential, with the n e i g h b o u r h o o d unit concept being u s e d extensively as the basis for layout design. The n e i g h b o u r h o o d unit c o n c e p t is based on two implicit a s s u m p t i o n s : • •

That it is possible, through the organisation of movement routes and public facilities, to create spatially defined social units which will, over time, satisfy all the range of needs for facilities and services of the residents in that unit. That sufficient resources will be available to provide each neighbourhood unit with the full range of public facilities it was planned to provide (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

The design m a n u a l s and various circulars in Z i m b a b w e , w h i c h define space standards for public facilities and amenities, support the strong definition of n e i g h b o u r h o o d units w h e r e schools, shops, and o t h e r c o m m u n i t y facilities form the m a i n focal point of the layout. C u r r e n t design directives limit space for c o m m u n i t y facilites to 30 percent of the site and not m o r e t h a n 5 p e r c e n t of the site for use by o p e n spaces for sporting activities. (Circular no. 3 of 1992). The g u i d e l i n e s reg a r d i n g the standards of provision for the range of land uses that s h o u l d be located in a residential area, such as shops, c o m m u n i t y halls , clinics, churches, etc., defined in the Layout Design M a n u a l of 1996 e m p h a s i s e the i m p o r t a n c e of locating shops and their associated activities in focal locations that are accessible to the w h o l e n e i g h b o u r h o o d . Schools (in particular primary schools), public parks, churches, and c o m m u n i t y facilities s h o u l d be located in centrally accessible areas and s h o u l d serve only the r e s i d e n t s of one n e i g h b o u r h o o d area. Despite these directives, not all the residential areas that have develo p e d in Z i m b a b w e provide their residents with e n v i r o n m e n t s that fulfill the objectives of the n e i g h b o u r h o o d unit or o t h e r d e s i g n c o n c e p t s . The existing situation is that m a n y of the m o r e established h i g h - i n c o m e , lowdensity areas (former w h i t e areas) do satisfy the stated objectives of the n e i g h b o u r h o o d concept, but m o s t of the l o w - i n c o m e , h i g h - d e n s i t y areas do not. These areas t e n d to be o v e r c r o w d e d a n d lack m a n y of the basic facilities and amenities to service their residents. The reality is that m a n y residents, in particular children, have to travel out of their residential areas to find a school that can a c c o m m o d a t e them. The provision of h e a l t h facilities in m a n y n e i g h b o u r h o o d s is i n a d e q u a t e , forcing residents to m o v e out of their areas and to the m a i n hospitals in t o w n for such services. In addition, recent residential d e v e l o p m e n t s lack even the m o s t basic services of shops and schools as the local authorities responsible have failed to raise the required finances to provide schools or attract developers to erect shops. U n e q u a l provision of services b e t w e e n one n e i g h b o u r h o o d a n d a n o t h e r has b e e n exacerbated by the colonial legacy, w h e r e b y different parts of the

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city (i.e., low- and high-density areas) were served with different levels of service according to the predominant ethnic group living in that area. This has resulted in inadequate facilities, especially health, education, and sporting facilities in many high-density areas. The consequence of this is the increasing numbers of people who have to travel to find these services in other residential areas of the city. In the majority of cases, such people are the poorest income groups who are least able to pay for long journeys across town to access such facilities, which are often only accessible by vehicle. Layout design should be responsive to the importance of improving general interdistrict accessibility and integrating different neighbourhoods, so as to reduce the dependence of people on private motor vehicles. In this respect, design should provide for: • • • •

An efficient public transport service suited to different types of trips (e.g., long and short haul). Create interchanges between different types of public transport services throughout the urban system. Create an awareness of the importance of sharing facilities and services (i.e., of clinics, schools, libraries) by clustering facilities within neighbourhoods. Facilitate the sharing of larger facilities (e.g., polyclinics and secondary schools) between neighbourhoods (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

Standards for individual facilities, which are defined by the Department of Physical Planning and other local authorities, are specified in local plans at the layout planning stage. These standards are relatively generous with 30 percent of the developable land in a site being given to public facilities and amenities at the design stage. On development, this often results in unused land in many housing areas. Where available resources are limited, this standard should be adjusted to provide only essential facilities and amenities with greater consideration being given to the use of'excess' land for urban agriculture. Greater consideration should be given to setting standards that are related to facility performance and distance apart rather than space requirements alone. This will result in economies in public land acquisition and housing costs. This saving on space also will be accompanied by increases in overall housing density which will reduce the variable costs of stand development. Standards should take into consideration the potential to share facilities and the advantages of multifunctional uses (e.g., shared playing fields and open spaces), which can reduce overall public land requirements. Where resources are scarce and local authorities are having difficulty in developing planned facilities and maintaining public open spaces, the potential to share costs becomes an attractive alternative. A problem that may arise in providing for shared public facilities is the difficulty of c o o r d i n a t i n g the different g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s and

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o r g a n i s a t i o n s that are r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e delivery of s u c h services. It w o u l d be necessary, therefore, at t h e d e s i g n stage to e n s u r e t h a t each o r g a n i s a t i o n u n d e r s t a n d s t h e a d v a n t a g e s of s h a r i n g so t h a t facilities w o u l d be p r o v i d e d accordingly.

Infrastructure Provision The c o n c e r n s for u r b a n f o r m h i g h l i g h t e d in t h e N e i g h b o u r h o o d , G a r d e n City, a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l Area c o n c e p t s are no l o n g e r a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e s i t u a t i o n in Z i m b a b w e , w h e r e h o u s i n g s o l u t i o n s for large n u m b e r s of lowi n c o m e p e o p l e are necessary. This has m e a n t t h a t h o u s i n g l a y o u t d e s i g n s m u s t be p r o v i d e d at an e c o n o m i c cost. As i n f r a s t r u c t u r e is a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t of t h e costs of p r o v i d i n g serviced land, it is e s s e n t i a l t h a t this cost is m i n i m i s e d . The policy g u i d e l i n e s a n d d e s i g n m a n u a l s in Z i m b a b w e are all c o n c e r n e d w i t h e n s u r i n g t h a t h o u s i n g is available to e v e n t h e l o w e s t i n c o m e b r a c k e t at an e c o n o m i c price. These g u i d e l i n e s , therefore, p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d inform a t i o n on t h e d e s i g n of roads, r o a d hierarchies, sewer, water, a n d electrical r e t i c u l a t i o n a n d t h e e c o n o m i c a l d e s i g n of s t a n d s in r e l a t i o n to infrastructure. Little e m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n social a n d d e v e l o p m e n t c o n siderations, a l t h o u g h the m o s t r e c e n t d e s i g n m a n u a l of 1996 h i g h l i g h t s t h e n e e d to i n c o r p o r a t e t h e s e aspects into t h e layout d e s i g n of s t a n d s in relation to infrastructure. There is a n e e d to look at m o r e t h a n just p r o v i d i n g cost efficient l a y o u t s a n d servicing l a n d as a n d w h e n f u n d i n g p e r m i t s . This w o u l d involve an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the i m p l i c a t i o n s for p l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g n i n g t h e i n f r a s t r u c ture of: • • •

Clustering facilities to enable resource sharing and multifunctional use of building and spaces. The integration of open space networks with the design of infrastructure networks so that open spaces could be used for stormwater storage and outfall facilities, or as solid waste disposal sites or sites for woodlots, etc. The alignment of trunk services to intensive m o v e m e n t routes/corridors which link public facilities and non-residential land uses (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

The creation of i n t e n s i v e corridors of d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e t r u n k services could be a l i g n e d w o u l d e n s u r e t h a t full water, s e w e r a g e , electricity, a n d o t h e r essential services can be p r o v i d e d i n c r e m e n t a l l y as a n d w h e n f u n d ing is available, b u t that t h e m a i n e c o n o m i c activities in t h e area w o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h services. It w o u l d also e n s u r e that, f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t process, e s s e n t i a l services w o u l d be p r o v i d e d to l a n d u s e s located a l o n g the corridor. This w o u l d e n s u r e t h a t facilities s u c h as c o m -

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mercial services, small scale manufacturers, clinics, and schools, which could be situated along or near the corridor, would be provided with basic services. It would also facilitate the multifunctional nature of such routes where street trading and social interaction are important activities. In addition, housing layouts should be seen as an opportunity to generate economic opportunities for local development purposes. This can be achieved by designing a circulation network that enables people to gain easy access to activity areas and development corridors through the provision of a network of linked spaces related to intersection points. This would ensure maximum accessibility to these spaces where intensive informal and other commercial activities could take place. At such points, services such as post boxes, public telephones, water standpipes, toilets, and waste collection points could be clustered to facilitate small trading operations and to attract people to these points. A larger public market could also be incorporated into designs and it would be important that it would be situated where there is a continuous flow of traffic in both directions and in close proximity to public transport stops (Behrens and Watson, 1997).

CONCLUSION Urban s e t t l e m e n t s in Zimbabwe have grown at such a fast pace in the last twenty years that planners have not had the time or financial resources to design urban areas which provide opportunities for residents to live full and varied lives, or that enable people to develop responsive environments. Since independence, planners have largely been concerned with providing the greatest number of houses and their associated facilities for the least cost and, in so doing, have been preoccupied with the design of cost efficient layouts. The result has been the development of stereotyped housing areas with little concern for quality environments that enrich peoples lives. This type of design has been guided by a variety of traditional design concepts supported by local space standards and a development control system that has not been responsive to the changing requirements and needs of the people living in these areas. There is a need, therefore, to put in place a design system that is more responsive to creating quality living environments. This can be achieved through a reassessment of the priorities for design strategies and m e t h o d s in Zimbabwe, which have been primarily focused on maximising efficiency of infrastructural design in order to reduce costs in the urban development process.

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REFERENCES Behrens, R. andV. Watson, 1997: Making Urban Places. Principles and Guidelines for Layout Planning. Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape Town Press: Cape Town. Biddulph, M., 1996: An Evaluation of a Public Sector Residential Layout Guide. Urban Design International, 1 (2): 145-162. Brown, A., 2000: Principles for Responsive Site Planning and Layout Design. Paper from Workshop Proceedings on Responsive Design and Plan Implementation in Urban Areas in Zimbabwe. A collaborative workshop between Department of City and Regional Planning, Cardiff, University of Wales, and the Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe, Harare. Kamete, A., 1999: Restrictive Control of Urban High Density Housing in Zimbabwe: Deregulation, Challenges and Implications for Urban Design. Housing Theory and Society, 16 (3) 1999: 136-151. Materu, J. S., 1993: An Overview of Urban Planning and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Paper presented at the methodological workshop on Urban Planning and Management for Eastern and Southern Africa organised by the Municipal Development Programme for Sub-Saharan Africa, October. Mbara, T. and D. Maunder, 1997: Travel Characteristics of Urban Households in Harare, Zimbabwe. Paper published at IFAC Transportation System Symposium, Chania: Greece. Ministry of Local Government and Housing (Zimbabwe), (MLGH) Housing Development Services and Brian Colquhoun, Hugh O'Donnell and Partners, (BCO'D), 1981: Design Approach to Roads and Stormwater Problems Relative to High Density Housing Developments in Zimbabwe. Unpublished paper, Herare. Ministry of Local Government and Housing (Zimbabwe), (MLGH), Housing Development Services, 1981: Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments In Zimbabwe. Ministry of Local Government and Housing (Zimbabwe), (MLGH), Housing Development Services Branch and the United Nations Centre For Human Settlements, (UNCHS), 1982: Infrastructure Design Standards in Zimbabwe. Ministry of Local Government and Housing (Zimbabwe), (MLGH), Housing Development Services Branch and the United Nations Centre For Human Settlements, (UNCHS), 1982: Planning and Subdivision Standards in Zimbabwe. Ministry of Local Government and Housing (Zimbabwe), Department of Physical Planning, (MLGH/DPP), 1996: Layout Design Manual for High Density Residential Developments.

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Ministry of Local Government and National Housing (Zimbabwe), Department of Physical Planning, (MLGH/DPP), 1999: Layout Design Manual. Rakodi, C., 1995: Harare. Inheriting a Settler-Colonial City: Change or Continuity? John Wiley and Sons: London. Sparrow, C. A., 1979: Urban Planning. The Zimbabwe Rhodesia Science News, 13 (11): 256-260. Wekwete, K., 1987: Development of Urban Planning in Zimbabwe--An Overview. Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University of Zimbabwe, Occasional Paper No. 8, 1987.