Frl~enig$ Ze~hrift

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 297, 249-253 (1979)

fiir

9 by Springer-Verlag 1979

Education in Analytical Chemistry* G. Kateman 1.* and A. Dijkstra 2 1 Catholic University, Dept. of Analytical Chemistry, Toernooiveld, Nijmegen, The Netherlands 2 State University, Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Croesestraat 77A, Utrecht, The Netherlands

Ausbildung in Analytischer Chemie Zusammenfassung. Bei einer Zusammenstellung und kritischen Betrachtung der Definitionen und Beschreibungen des Begriffs Analytische Chemie in der Literatur ergeben sich drei gut unterscheidbare, nicht hierarchische Gebiete. Diese Gebiete betreffen die Erzeugung analytischer Information, analytische Forschung und Entwicklung, sowie die organisatorischen Aspekte im analytischen Laboratorium. Die vom analytischen Laboratorium zu bewfiltigenden Aufgaben k6nnen in drei Gruppen eingeteilt werden, die diesen. Gebieten entsprechen. Man kann feststellen, dab die Ausbildung in Analytischer Chemie im allgemeinen nur die beiden erstgenannten Gebiete bertihrt. Die organisatorischen Aspekte erfahren nur geringe oder gar keine Beachtung, wahrscheinlich wegen der auf diesem Gebiet bis vor kurzem fehlenden Literatur. Da die Anzahl der sich damit befassenden Arbeiten jetzt im Ansteigen begriffen ist, sollte jedoch in Zukunft auch dieses Gebiet in die Ausbildung einbezogen werden. Entsprechende Vorschl~ge ftir ein Ausbildungssystem werden gemacht, wobei drei Hauptrichtungen, entsprechend den genannten Gebieten, untersehieden werden.

Summary. An inventory and analysis of the definitions and descriptions of Analytical Chemistry in the literature reveals three well distinguishable non-hierarchical areas in Analytical Chemistry. These areas reflect the production of analytical information, the analytical research and development and the organizational aspects in the analytical laboratory. An inventory of the tasks to be performed in the analytical laboratory can be grouped into three categories corresponding with those three areas. It can be observed that education and * Presented at Euroanalysis 20 25, 1978 ** Address for correspondence

III conference, Dublin, August

training in Analytical Chemistry usually covers only the first and second area. In education little or no attention is paid to the third, organizational level; probably as a result of the until recently lacking literature about subjects covering these aspects. However, the number of papers in analytical literature dealing with these aspects is increasing. Consequently in future these aspects have to be dealt with in analytical education and training. Proposals are given about an educational scheme whereby three streams, corresponding with the three areas, can be distinguished.

Key words: Analytische

Chemic;

Ausbildungs-

probleme

Introduction Analytical Chemistry is a flourishing discipline. There cannot be any doubt about this statement. The number of papers published every year in the analytical chemical journals steadily increased with about a factor of two every ten years and amounted to roughly 20,000 in 1970 [4]. This growth is due to the discovery and development of many analytical methods whereas only a few disappear from the analytical scene. Notwithstanding this appreciable growth and size of the volume of analytical literature and the important role that Analytical Chemistry plays in the progress of several branches of science and technology, there apparently seems to be a considerable doubt about the real nature of Analytical Chemistry. Many discussions were devoted to the question as to whether analytical chemistry is to be regarded as a scientific discipline [5, 8, 20, 21,26, 33 - 35, 37]. No agreement seems to exist about the justification, possibility and usefulness of Analytical Chemistry as a discipline with its own specific character. In one instance [14] the problem is

0016-1152/79/0297/0249/$01.00

250 stated very explicitly: "Analytical Chemistry, a fading discipline ?" Although it is tempting to summarize the discussions in some detail, it seems adequate for a discussion about education in Analytical Chemistry, and also about research and development, to only realize the very fact that every day millions of analytical results have to be and are being produced. For this production man, methods, instruments and organisations are required. The problem which man, methods, instruments and organisations are needed, is of importance when discussing the future of education (and research and development) in Analytical Chemistry. Definitions and descriptions of Analytical Chemistry published in the analytical literature probably can shed some light upon this problem. Also an analysis of the tasks to be performed in the analytical laboratory can be useful for exploring the future needs in education in Analytical Chemistry. We realise that in considering the teaching of Analytical Chemistry and the research and development in this branch of science the problem is not fully explored by merely looking at the definition and the tasks. It seems appropriate to quote some remarks of Goulden [16] which are in full agreement with our views [18]. Goulden states: "There are three essential components of much human endeavour : the work or tasks to be undertaken; the organisation necessary to effect that work; and the people by whom the work will be done. All three of these components are closely interrelated and, .... it should be borne in mind that each one has a continuous interaction with the other two. The main point about this trinity is that we tend to pay prime attention to the work or tasks to be accomplished and much less attention to the other two components. This was well illustrated in . . . . . analytical conferences by the overriding concern for analytical techniques and instrumen ration in most of thepaperspresented. Nevertheless, it is only by ensuring that the organisation of the work and people is arranged to best effect and that the contribution that each individual can make is optimised as far as is practicable that the human and material resources at our disposal will be utilised to the full. "'

Definitions

The definitions and descriptions of Analytical Chemistry published in the analytical literature were analysed by considering four aspects. These aspects can be represented by the next four questions: 1. What are the tasks to be accomplished? 2. What are the means to be used? 3. What are the goals to be reached? 4. What are the areas the goals are covering?

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., Band 297 (1979) Analysing the literature is to some extent an arbitrary and subjective task. However, three categories of definitions appear to have been formulated. These categories can be described as follows: 1. Analytical Chemistry (Analytical Chemists) produces information (task) by using available analytical procedures (means) in order to characterize by its chemical composition (goal) matter (area) [1f, 12-14, 19, 30, 32, 37]. 2. Analytical Chemistry (Analytical Chemists) studies the process of gathering information (task) by using principles of several disciplines (means) in order to characterize (goal) matter or systems (area) [10, 13, 29, 37]. 3. Analytical Chemistry (Analytical Chemists) produces strategies for obtaining information (task) by the optimal use of available analytical procedures (means) in order to characterize (goal) matter or systems (area)

[8, 15, 2o1. In a way these categories correspond to three well distinguishable non-hierarchical levels in Analytical Chemistry. The first level refers to the actual production of analytical results. For this production instruments, procedures and skilled personnel are required. The craftmanship of producing analytical information should include the ability to judge the quality of that information. The second level essentially covers the research and development of analytical procedures. For this activity a sound knowledge of chemical and physical principles is required. Nowadays a knowledge of instrumentation and the use of computers and mathematical techniques is indispensable. The third level can be considered as an organisational level. The interaction between men and machines, communication as well as the optimal use of the tools available for producing information requires the use of interdisciplinary approaches. In practice these levels are interwoven. However, the division of Analytical Chemistry into three levels is useful when trying to gain a better insight into the problems that arise when teaching Analytical Chemistry as well as the research and development required for the advancement of this discipline. The output of the first level consists of millions of analytical results produced every day. The output of the second level is precipitated in a large number of (papers on) analytical instruments and procedures. The bulk of the 20,000 papers published every year belongs to this category. Up till now the third level is barely covered in analytical literature [9]. The papers attempting to describe Analytical Chemistry at this level are few in number and of recent date.

G. Kateman and A. Dijkstra: Education in Analytical Chemistry

~Measuringsystem-"~ (taboratory) J

//

~peasuredobject ~ / , rocessor products)~

_ ('/Environment etc.)'~ z k,x~hospital,chemica[ptant

Fig. l. Relevantrelations for arriving at the goal of the analysis Tasks and Tools

The process of the production of analytical information requires the accomplishment of a series of tasks. Consequently a number of tools have to be or are to be made available. The tools of the Analytical Chemists are knowledge and apparatus. An inventory of the tasks and tools in the analytical laboratory leads to the following categories.

1. Formulating the Goal The analytical problem, i.e. the problem of determining the composition of matter, is never an end in itself. The problem always is derived from and thus closely related to the environment of the analytical laboratory. Figure I shows how the measuring system, e.g. the laboratory, the measured object and the environment are interrelated. Quantification of these relationships is required in order to establish an optimal interrelation. The relation object-laboratory comprises sample size and sampling frequency and limit of detection etc. The relation object-environment formulates the purpose of the analysis, e.g. the characterization, monitoring or control of products and processes and consequently dictates the parameters of the object-laboratory relation. The relation environment-laboratory comprises such features as accuracy, precision and frequency of reporting etc. Essentially the analytical problem is a translation of questions such as "How corrosive is this material ?", "'How (un)healthy is that patient'?", "What type and how much fertilizer is to be used?", "Has the right product been synthesized?", etc. Translation of such basically non-analytical problems into analytical terms (qualitative ore quantitative analysis, precision, etc.) requires a communication of the Analytical Chemist with the environment (the engineer, the medical doctor, etc), Similarly the solution of the analytical problem, i.e. the composition of the sample, has to be translated into terms relevant to the original problem (reporting of analytical results). 2. Selection of the Analytical Procedure Often for the solution of the analytical problem several more or less well described analytical procedures or

251

combinations of analytical procedures are available. Then the Analytical Chemist is faced with choosing the right, the best or the optimal (combination of) procedure(s). A sensible selection can only be made when taking into account the goals that are set and the tools that are available.

3. The Production of Analytical Information After selecting the right or optimal procedure, the sample(s) can be analysed. If the procedure is well described, performing the analysis is a rather straightforward, although in some instances quite complicated task, requiring well defined skills and instruments. If the procedure cannot be applied directly (for instance because of a slightly different type of sample) but needs some modifications, performing the task requires a knowledge of the principles underlying the procedure in order to produce reliable analytical results. It is obvious that the control of the analytical results is an important aspect associated with the production. 4. Research and Development of Procedures Improvement of existing and development of new analytical procedures can be considered as a vital task for the Analytical Chemist. In order to improve existing analytical service and to meet future demands, basic analytical research and development of instruments etc. is required. This task by and large is not fundamentally different from research in other branches of science and technology. However, it definitely requires a sound knowledge of a wide variety of other disciplines (depending on the research subject this can be knowledge of physics, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, mathematics, electronics, etc.) 5. Management In order to create the conditions for performing adequately the tasks 1 - 4 , a number of other tasks grouped under the heading management is required. Management comprises the optimal combination of tasks and tools. This includes not only the tasks set by the relation object-laboratory, but also the secondary tasks of training personnel, assignment of jobs, maintenance of apparatus etc. These secondary tasks are set by the requirement of establishing the means to perform the primary task: methods, apparatus and personnel. Needs of Society

Little is known about the needs of society. An inquiry of the Society for Analytical Chemistry [11] among 21 chief analysts of (British) industrial and government institutions disclosed these statements: "Only seven replies expressed general satisfaction with present day

252 education and training, the main criticism being that the analytical content was very little related to current requirements." "On future trends, almost all replies were unanimous in that they expected a greater degree of instrumental and automated methods of analysis, use of computers and more involvement with plant, quality control andproduction, . . . ., (A ) clear majority accepted that a full training to meet the future needs of Analytical Chemistry in industry will not be possible. Instead, they advocate a sound background infundamentals so that the person concerned can adapt as the subject evolves." However: "Several replies stressed the need to retain the basic training in classical methods." An inquiry among eight chief analysts of Dutch industrial analytical research laboratories confirms these statements. Furthermore, they expect a continuing trend towards faster methods producing more accurate results. They also expect the time allowed to develop new methods to become much shorter. Reason for this seems to be the increased speed of development of chemical processes, the accompanying increase of scale-up factors, and the more frequent change in topics, e.g. in environmental analysis. They stress the education of Analytical Chemists able to communicate with all involved and having a thorough knowledge of the fundamentals of chemistry, physics, technology and operations research. Grasselli [17] states that needs of industrial laboratories must be translated into the teaching functions: "emphasise 'problem solving', develop broad background and provide more industry interaction."

Research and Development As has been stated that the majority of research and development is devoted to improvement of existing and creation of new methods for producing analytical information. A relatively small volume of the analytical literature is devoted to the optimal selection of procedures and the application of operations research techniques in the analytical laboratory [1 a - i, 24, 25, 36], to management and organizational design of the laboratory [6,16, 31], and optimization [7,28]. There are no rules for translating problems into analytical terms except in the field of process control [23,27]. We are pleased to note that there are indications that more studies in these fields have been planned and hope that results of these studies will be published in analytical literature in due course. In order to meet the increasing demand for more and more reliable analytical information, and at the same time being aware of the increasing costs associated with this increasing demand, attention should be paid to the organization of the analytical laboratory, to its relation

Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., Band 297 (1979)

Fig. 2. The three areas in AnalyticalChemistry

to the environment and to the use of all techniques that are available for improving this organization.

Education From the foregoing paragraphs it can be conluded that there is a diversity of tasks in the production process of analytical results. It requires a diversity of skills and in our opinion the training of Analytical Chemists cannot cover all these aspects. Our conclusion necessarily leads to an educational scheme with a specialisation in one or more of these aspects. If we consider the tasks once again and represent these in a diagram (Fig. 2), it seems logical to distinguish between three different, but partially overlapping areas. After a confrontation with a basic programme in Analytical Chemistry, there should be a possibility for a student to choose from one of the three main streams, which reflect an education and training in: A. The actual performance of the analysis; as has been observed this requires a craftmanship in handling chemical procedures (manual aspects, calibrations, interpretation of measurements, etc.) as well as control aspects (statistical tests, etc.). B. (Analytical) research; for this specialization a sound knowledge of several disciplines is required as well as methods for planning research (experimental design, etc.). C. (Analytical) management; this specialization involves a variety of abilities, ranging from the ability of establishing relations whith the environment (for translation of the problem) to the skill of selecting the optimal strategy for the analysis.

G. Kateman and A. Dijkstra: Education in Analytical Chemistry

Whereas streams A and B are well represented in the training of Analytical Chemists [2, 3,22], (in Holland the training at the university usually is aimed at stream B, whereas other, non-academical institutions, exist for the training for stream A), specialization C is rarely found at the universities, although some attempts are being made to rectify this situation. In one instance (University of Nijmegen) the choice for stream C has been explicitly made. Establishing a training according to stream C is made difficult because of a relative deficiency of research into this area. The curriculae for the three specializations cannot be established once and for all. New techniques are being developed and need to be included in the curriculum for stream A, whereas the tools of (analytical) research steadily improve and new tools are being added and consequently need to be incorporated in the curriculum for stream B. In this respect we emphasise the importance of chemometrics, comprising mathematical and statistical techniques such as factor analysis and pattern recognition. By and large one can state that in order to establish a training according to stream C a considerable amount of research in that area is required. The possibility of applying the techniques of management, operations research etc. to Analytical Chemistry should be investigated.

References 1. Arbeitskreis ,,Automation in der Analyse": Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. (a) 222, 100 (1966); (b) 238, 81 (1968); (c) 247, 1 (1969); (d) 256, 7 (1971); (e) 258, 363 (1972); (f) 271, 97 (1974); (g) 256, 257 (1971); (h) 261, 1 (1972); (i) Talanta 20, 811 (1973) 2. Ballczo, H.: Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 263, 324 (1973) 3. Betteridge, D.: Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 263, 317 (1973) 4. Brooks, R. R., Smythe, L. E.: Talanta 22, 495 (1975) 5. Bruins Slot, J. H. W., Dijkstra, A. : Chem. Weekblad 68, (50), 13 (1972)

253 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

26. 27. 28.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Cook, C. F.: Anal. Chem. 48, 724A (1976) Deming, S. N., Morgan, S. L. : Anal. Chem. 45, 278A (1973) Dijkstra, A.: Chem. Weekblad 67, (6), 8 (1971) Dijkstra, A. : Reviews on Analytical Chemistry presented at the Euroanalysis Conference II, p. 27. Paris: Masson 1977 Dunlop, E. C.: Anal. Chem. 38, (13) 34A (1966) Education and training committee of the Society for Analytical Chemistry: Proc. Soc. Anal. Chem. September 1972, p. 173 Elving, P. J.: Anal. Chem. 22, 962 (1950) Fachgruppe Analytische Chemie GDCh: Mitteilungsblatt 26, (Nov. 1976) Findeis, A. F., Wilson, M. K., Meinke, W. W. :Anal. Chem. 42, (7) 26A (1970) Gottschalk, G.: Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 258, 1 (1972) Goulden, R. : Analyst 99, 929 (1974) Grasselli, J. G.: Anal Chem. 49, 182A (1977) Kateman, G. : Analytische ervaring, p. 19. Nijmegen: Dekker & van de Vegt 1973 Laitinen, H. A.: Anal. Chem. 38, 673 (1966) Laitinen, H. A.: Anal. Chem. 42, 112l (1970) Laitinen, H. A.: Anal. Chem. 42, (14) 37A (1970) Laitinen, H. A.: Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 263, 307 (1973) Leemans, F. A.: Anal. Chem. 43, (11) 36A (1971) Massart, D. L., Kaufman, L.: Anal. Chem. 47, 1244A (1975) Massart, D. L., de Clerq, H., Smits, R. : Reviews on Analytical Chemistry presented at the Euroanalysis Conference II, p. 119. Paris: Masson 1977 Miiller, R. H.: Anal. Chem. 40, (13) (109A) (1968) Miiskens, P. J. W. M., Kateman, G.: Anal China. Acta, Computer Techniques and Optimization 103, 1 (1978) Olansky, A. S., Parker, L. R., Morgan, S. L., Deming, S. N.: Anal. Chim. Acta, Computer Techniques and Optimization 95, 107 (1977) Reinmuth, W. H. : Anal. Chem. 38, (2) 49A (1966) Robinson, J. W.: Anal. Chem. 38, (2) 50A (1966) Schmidt, B.: Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem. 287, 157 (1977) Shain, I.: Anal. Chem. 38, (2) 55A (1966) Siggia, S.: J. Chem. Educat. 44, 545 (1967) Siggia, S.: Anal. Chem. 47, 207A (1975) Siggia, S.: Anal. Chem. 41, (13) 50A (1969) Vandeginste, B. G. M.: Anal. Letters 10, 661 (1977) Wharton, H. W., Chakrabarti, C. L.: J. Chem. Educat. 47, 58 (1970)

Received May 23, 1978