Meccanica (2014) 49:13–21 DOI 10.1007/s11012-013-9866-9
European polytechnic schools in nineteenth century and Karlsruhe’s exemplary case Danilo Capecchi • Giuseppe Ruta
Received: 18 November 2013 / Accepted: 18 December 2013 / Published online: 14 January 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Abstract We present a short sketch of higher technical schools in Europe at the half of nineteenth century. With the aim of making some comparisons, we have consulted original documents and present the organisation of the Polytechnic in Karlsruhe in detail as an examplary case. Keywords History of university Technical schools History of mechanics History of engineering
1 Introduction The study of the history of universities and of the university system has drawn a lot of attention over the last few years, leading to the founding of specialized journals, like the one edited by the Oxford University
D. Capecchi G. Ruta (&) Dipartimento d’ingegneria strutturale e geotecnica, ‘‘Sapienza’’ University, Rome, Italy e-mail:
[email protected] D. Capecchi e-mail:
[email protected]
Press,1 the great monographs edited by the Cambridge University Press2 and, for the Italian universities, the Annali di storia delle universita` italiane, edited by CLUEB, Bologna.3 Roughly speaking, in the first years of the nineteenth century two university models appeared in Europe [1–4]. One originated in France after the revolution, with special colleges under strict discipline and state control. The stimulus was provided by the revolution, and the objective of high education was to promote public utility. This long-lasting model was eroded only at the turn of twentieth century. The second model appeared in Prussia and set the standard for German universities. Wilhelm Von Humboldt (1767–1835) conceived the Prussian model, known after him. He followed Friedrich Schleiermacher’s (1768–1834) liberal ideas, and was influenced by the pedagogue Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827). His goal was to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to ‘‘take account of the fundamental laws of science in all their thinking.’’ Both models had a strong impact on other European states, such as Italy and Britain. In this paper, leaving aside a general exposition on universities, we will focus on the organisation of 1
See, e.g., the web page http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/category/ academic/series/history/hou.do#.UQ_IBBxnKGc. 2 A History of the University in Europe edited by W. Ru¨egg, Cambridge University Press, 1992–2011. 3 See the web site http://www.cisui.unibo.it/frame_annali.htm.
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German polytechnics. In contrast with France, in the countries of German culture the higher technical schools were originally not completely integrated within the educational system [5–7]. Indeed, in the beginning they provided only technical education and could not award doctorates, a privilege of the universities. Things, however, changed in the second half of nineteenth century and polytechnics, too, were modelled on Von Humboldt’s ideas. Due to the fragmentation of German-speaking states before their Prussianled unification in the late 1800’s there were technical high schools in each of them. Their aim was twofold: on the one hand, they prepared state personnel, among whom the teachers of middle schools; on the other hand, they provided basic industrial training for the emerging industrial society. As a model in this field we will consider the Polytechnische Schule zu Karlsruhe, which had a university-like organization, resembling French high schools, but with some differences: basics and applications were separated in France, unified in Germany; French schools had a very high scientific level, while German polytechnics were seen, at least in the beginning, as educational institutions, and research was not important. We will provide, on the basis of the original volumes containing the Programm fu¨r das Studienjahr,4 sketches of the organization of the courses provided, some information on attendance, and the like.
2 Polytechnics in Europe At the beginning of nineteenth century, the education of architects and engineers in Europe combined apprenticeship and theoretical bases, especially mathematics. Indeed, the scientists of the time, then also known as natural philosophers, believed that pure science prepared the ground for all technicians. In most European states, special units for military and government service, especially devoted to mines and railroads, were first founded in the mid-eighteenth century [8, 9]: in France, we may mention the Ge´nie militaire, for instance. Aiming at providing education for the components of these units, special schools were established, the standards of which were very different 4
For a microfilm copy of the original documents, we are indebted with Dr. Klaus Nippert, Head of Archives, KIT— Karlsruher Institut fu¨r Technologie, present name of the Polytechnische Schule zu Karlsruhe.
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from state to state, even if France was a model for many. Thus, until the first half of nineteenth century, mining and military schools made up a large proportion of higher technical education. The need for industry to have more qualified personnel arose later, first in Germany, then in the rest of Europe. 2.1 Polytechnics in France In France, the E´cole des pontes et chausse´es was founded in 1747 in Paris, the E´cole royale du ge´nie in 1748 in Me´zie`res. At first self-learning was practiced in the E´cole des pontes et chausse´es, while among the teachers of the E´cole royale du ge´nie we could have found Charles Bossut and Gaspard Monge. We must remark, however, that until the end of eighteenth century many teachers of technical subjects were not professionals, but rather qualified personnel of the railroads and former best students: a lot of the engineering practice was simply apprenticeship. Attendance was very limited at the beginning, some ten in a class. Again in Paris, in 1788 the E´cole des mines was founded, while in 1794 the E´cole du ge´nie militaire took over from the school in Me´zie`res. In 1794 the E´cole centrale des travaux publics was established on the initiative of Monge and Lazare Carnot [10]. Its teachers were chosen from among the greatest names in science, and students were recruited by means of a competitive examination advertised throughout France. The first year saw the enrolment of 400 students at different levels. After a first round of three-month courses they were divided into three groups: those who could enter state service at once, those who needed a year, and those who needed 2 years. The school, called E´cole polytechnique in 1795, had a well-defined objective from its inception, which was to provide its students with a solid scientific training based on mathematics, physics and chemistry. The E´cole polytechnique prepared students for specialist schools such as the E´cole du ge´nie, the E´cole des mines, the E´cole des ponts et chausse´es. Generally speaking, manufacturing schools were given attention only after 1870, while the situation was different in other countries. The Institut industriel du Nord was opened in 1872 and the E´cole municipale de physique et de chimie industrielles in 1882. Centres of higher technical education, like the Institute chimique and the Institutes e´lectromagne´tiques, were later opened and associated with universities.
Meccanica (2014) 49:13–21 Table 1 The first engineering schools in the Kingdom of Italy Date of foundation
City of foundation
Name of the school
1860
Torino
Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri
1863
Milano
Regio Istituto tecnico
1863
Napoli
Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri
1875
Padova
Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri
1870
Genova
Scuola superiore navale
1875
Bologna
Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri
1873
Roma
Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri
2.2 Polytechnics in Italy Before the unification of Italy, the founding of technical schools was left to the enlightenment of the local regents: we see technical schools in all the most important cities with institutions of higher education (Naples, Rome, Turin, Milan). With the constitution of the Kingdom of Italy (1861), there was a need for technicians that could put modern knowledge into practice. Among these technicians, engineers emerged as key figures. The launch of a comprehensive law on public education, known after its promoter Casati (1859), first in the Kingdom of Sardinia, then in unified Italy, was a key event in the process of modernizing Italian technology. Indeed, it established engineering schools in the newborn kingdom, and courses for engineers were separated from the faculties of mathematics in universities, which served only as a preparation. Some general information on the subject is found in [4]. The following table shows a list of some of the most important Italian Scuole d’applicazione per ingegneri, or similar schools, together with their foundation date (Table 1) from [4]. In Turin, before unification, the Regio istituto tecnico was opened in 1852, and provided theoretical bases similar to those in universities. After Casati’s education reform law, the Scuola di applicazione per ingegneri opened, devoted to architecture and civil engineering. The Museo industriale opened in 1862, focusing on industrial applications. In 1906, the two institutions merged, forming the Politecnico, which is still nowadays one of the most important engineering schools in Italy. Some information on the teaching and research activities at the two schools are in [11–15]. Interestingly, the first woman in Italy to get a degree in
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engineering, Emma Strada, was at the Politecnico di Torino in 1908 [16]. In Milan, the Societa` d’incoraggiamento d’arti e mestieri was founded in 1838, aimed at promoting practical technical education. Soon afterwards, however, the need for higher technical education was felt, to the extent that a journal was founded by the famous intellectual Carlo Cattaneo (1801–1869), called Politecnico (1839). It discussed, among other things, the need to set up a higher technical school to promote progress in Milan and its region, then under the Austrian empire, in a spirit of nationalism. Francesco Brioschi (1824–1897)5 founded the Regio istituto tecnico superiore, a high technical school, in 1850. It became Regia scuola d’ingegneria in 1923 and Politecnico di Milano in 1937.6 In Naples, the Scuola d’applicazione per ingegneri di ponti e strade was founded in 1811, on the model of the E´cole polytechnique, clearly under the influence of French culture. The school, re-founded in 1819, was called Scuola d’applicazione di ponti e strade, then Scuola d’applicazione degli ingegneri del Genio Civile, and in 1863, after unification, it became the Regia scuola di applicazioni, under the control of the Ministry of Education. In Rome, Pope Pius VII instituted the Scuola d’ingegneria in 1817, originally not part of the university. The teaching ended with a general exam for a civil engineering diploma, granting the right to enter state service but also, for the first time in Italy, to work as freelance professionals. In 1873, by royal decree, the Scuola di applicazione per gli Ingegneri in Roma was established: electrical engineering courses were introduced in 1886, followed by in 1892 by land estimate, agricultural economy, and applied hygiene. The school turned into the faculty of engineering of the university in 1935. 2.3 Polytechnics in Great Britain In England, engineering schools were established later than the rest of Europe, one factor being that private
5
Francesco Brioschi was a well-known mathematician; he taught mathematics in Pavia, where he was also president of the university, more historic than that of Milan. He was a former pupil of Italy’s most brilliant mathematician and mechanician in the first part of the nineteenth century, Gabrio Piola [17]. 6 More information is found on the web page http://www. polimi.it/ateneo/la-storia/le-origini/.
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companies carried out most public works [18]. The training of technical experts was, however, controlled by well-established rules rooted in the engineers’ community. Actually, the only recognized qualification was the certificate of a long apprenticeship. In 1771, the Institution of Civil Engineering was founded, incorporating all the previous regulations in its statute. In 1847, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers was founded, for similar purposes. Both gave fundamental importance to experience over theory. Attempts to establish special courses of high education in the 1820–1830s were unsuccessful. In 1845 and 1851, the Royal College of Chemistry and the Royal School of Mines were opened. Only from the 1870s, however, new chairs of engineering were established in the most important cities of Great Britain, with a status, however, lower than that of universities.
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autonomy as universities. Workshop training lost its original prominence in their syllabus, and efforts were also made to appoint teachers with good scientific credentials. The period from the 1850s to the 1880s saw a considerable increase in students attending technical schools. Teaching laboratories, where theory was mixed with practice, were pioneered by Germany, and in the 1880s they began to be adopted extensively by the Technische Hochschulen. The availability of laboratories for mechanical engineering, material testing, applied chemistry, and electrical engineering became the hallmark of modern, high quality schools, among which those in Berlin were particularly important. The cause of technical schools was well supported by the German Society of Engineers, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure [20]. At the turn of twentieth century the Technische Hochschulen were granted the right to award doctoral degrees in engineering.
2.4 Polytechnics in Germany Technical schools called Bergakademien were founded in Freiberg (1765) and Berlin (1770): geometry, hydraulics, mining techniques, and chemistry were taught in them. In 1799, the Bauakademie, a school of architecture, was established in Berlin as part of the reorganization of the educational system, which culminated in the opening of Berlin University in 1810. The Technische Universita¨t Berlin was founded only in 1879, merging the previous Bergakademie, Bauakademie, Technische Schule (1821) and Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg (1879) [19]. The level of the Bauakademie was ranked below that of the university, since it was essentially professional. The need for professionals in chemistry was felt by the 1840s, a demand that was largely satisfied by universities. In the 1820–1830s Gewerbeschulen were opened, aimed at ensuring professional training and faster economic development. In 1821, a Gewerbeinstitut was opened in Berlin, totally devoted to industry. In other German states, where schools for civil servants did not exist, the Gewerbeschulen were less specialized, and the majority of students who attended them in the first half of the century got positions in the public services. In the 1860s the Gewerbeschulen were turned into Polytechnische Schulen. In the late 1870s, they became Technische Hochschulen. Responsibility for them was shifted from the Ministry of Commerce to that of Education, and they were granted the same
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3 The polytechnic school in Karlsruhe The grand duke Ludwig I von Baden (1763–1830) founded the technical school in Karlsruhe, the capital city of the region Baden, in 1825, inspired by the Parisian E´cole polytechnique. For this reason we read Großherzogliche Badische Schule in the original programs of the school. In 1832 a Forstschule, devoted to forest sciences, was also founded (the famous Black Forest is in the region of BadenWu¨rttemberg). The grand duke Friedrich I (1826–1907), grandson of Ludwig, merged the schools into a Technische Hochschule and then, in 1885, into a Polytechnische Hochschule. The grand duke went on patronizing the school with donations and regular visits during festivities, as reported in the programs of the school. This patronage reached the point that the polytechnic was called Fridericiana in 1902, as stated in the front page of the school programs from that year on. In addition, the school was one of the first in Germany (1899) to award doctorates in applied science (Doktor-Ingenieur), similar to those issued by universities. The first woman in Germany to get this degree was in Karlsruhe in 1903. In the period we are interested in, that is, the last decades of the nineteenth century and the first of the twentieth, the students and staff of the polytechnic in Karlsruhe included many important personalities in
Technical architecture I Landscape architectural drawing Design of building elements Theory of machines Free-hand drawing
Inorganic experimental chemistry
Technical architecture I
Design of building elements
Theory of machines
Technological culture Applied economy Principles of civil right
Practice in geodesy II Economy and commerce Transportation Labour laws
Design of bridges and railways I
Design of machines
Social legislation
Design of channels
River and lake buildings
Dams and water channels
Railway management
Foundations
Tunnelling and mining
Tunnelling and mining Construction of streets and railways
Financial sciences
Ground works
Construction in stone
Higher geodesy Method of least squares
Seventh semester
Design of building elements
Earth morphology
Mineralogy
Graphical statics
Technical mechanics
Problems of theoretical mechanics
Theoretical mechanics I
Machine elements I and design
Theoretical steel and bridges Bridges III
Iron buildings and bridges I
Bridges II and design Steel structures
Organic experimental chemistry
Experimental physics I
Practical geometry Practice in geodesy I
Experimental physics II
Landscape architectural drawing
Sixth semester
General economy Social laws
Descriptive geometry II
Fifth semester
High steel buildings Economy and commerce Transportation
High steel buildings
Analytical geometry in space
Descriptive geometry I
German constitution and administrative law
Water management
Water supply
Dams and water channels
Design of channels
Design of bridges and railways II
Practice in geodesy III Construction of streets and railways
Eighth semester
Labour laws
Design of building elements
Ground works
Geology
Perspective
Strength of materials
Hydraulics
Problems of theoretical mechanics
Theoretical mechanics II
Technical mechanics
Differential and integral calculus I
Differential equations
Differential and integral calculus II
Fourth semester
Analytical geometry in the plane
Third semester
Second semester
First semester
Civil engineering (Ingenieurwesen)
Table 2 The syllabus for the academic year 1900–1901 for civil and mechanical engineering from the original syllabus of the Polytechnische Schule zu Karlsruhe for the academic year 1900-1901
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123 Elements of practical geometry and measurements Transportation
Direct current technology
Technical chemistry
Physics laboratory Financial sciences
Water supply
Tunnelling and mining
Heating and ventilation
Railways
Electric measures
Chemical technology
Mechanical technology
Direct current technology
Selected technical analysis
Mechanical laboratory
Mechanical technology
Selected technical analysis
Locomotives
Construction of machines (cranes, pumps, presses…)
Industrial heating
Building of steam machines Construction of machines (water wheels, turbines…)
Theory of machines
Building of water motors
Social laws
Applied economy
Physics laboratory
Principles of civil right
Selected technical analysis
Technical chemistry II
Telegraphy and telephony
Electrical railways
Kinetic theory of gases
Direct current technology
Tunnelling and mining
Railway management
Steel structures
Construction of machines (steam turbines…)
German constitution and administrative law
Physics laboratory
Technical analysis
Water supply
Foundations
Dams and water channels
Direct current technology
Mechanical laboratory
Construction of machines (steam turbines…)
Eighth semester
Labour laws
Transportation
Economy and commerce
Fabrication of machines
General economy
Lifting equipment
Elements of machines II and realization
Hydraulics
Strength of materials
Applications of perspective
Problems of theoretical mechanics
Theoretical mechanics II
Synthetic geometry II
Fourth semester
Social laws
Mechanical laboratory
Free-hand drawing
Accounting for industrial plants
Seventh semester
Free-hand drawing
Technical architecture I and design of building elements
Fabrication of machines
Elements of machines I and realization
Graphical statics
Problems of theoretical mechanics
Theoretical mechanics I
Synthetic geometry I
Differential equations
Third semester
Sixth semester
Design of building elements
Theory of machines
Fifth semester
Theory of machines Drawing of machinery
Inorganic experimental chemistry
Experimental physics II
Descriptive geometry II
Plane and spherical trigonometry Organic experimental chemistry
Analytical geometry in space
Differential and integral calculus I
Experimental physics I
Differential and integral calculus II
Analytical geometry in the plane
Descriptive geometry I
Second semester
First semester
Mechanical engineering (Maschinenwesen)
Table 2 continued
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the field of pure and applied science. Among them, we may mention: the mathematicians Georg Hamel (1877–1954) and Ernst Schro¨der (1841–1902); the physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), whose fundamental experiments on electro-magnetism in Karlsruhe are remembered by the dedication of a meeting room, the Hertz-Ho¨rsaal, in the polytechnic; the chemist Fritz Haber (1868–1934), who later won a Nobel prize; the civil engineer Friedrich Engesser (1848–1931), best known for bridge construction and structural mechanics; the mechanical engineers Carl Benz (1844–1929), Franz Grashof (1826–1893), Emil Skoda (1839–1900), August Thyssen (1842–1926), to mention but a few. With the aim of getting an insight into the actual organization of the school, we examined the original programs for the abovementioned. We got copies of the original documents directly from Dr. Klaus Nippert, Head of Archives of the Karlsruher Institut fu¨r Technologie, which inherited the legacy of the Polytechnische Hochschule. We will give details on this, in particular on the civil and mechanical engineering syllabus, on the students and on the organization of the polytechnic at the turn of the century. The academic year we will examine is 1900–1901 (Table 2). It is also very interesting to note that the polytechnic offered a basic 2-year general course in mathematics and natural sciences (Allgemeine Abteilung fu¨r Mathematik und allgemein bildende Fa¨cher) for those who wanted to become middle school or private teachers, or who had not yet decided which special technical course to attend. Students in Italy also attended a basic course before entering a 3-year school of specialization in engineering. However, the programme of the general course at Karlsruhe stresses that a complete basic education was completed with lectures on civil and state right, history, literature, art history, and pedagogy. The School of Architecture (Architektur) was actually a mixture of fine arts, a grounding in mathematics and natural sciences, elements of building techniques, design and architecture pattern schemes. One may also note lectures in clay and plaster modelling in the syllabus, as well as guided tours to the state museum of art and painting gallery. Actually, there was no special stress on structural mechanics, which was left, apparently, to the civil engineer. In the latter course, there was, on the other
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hand, a special sub-course devoted to a profession called Geometer, a kind of technician in civil infrastructures, of a lower level than a Doktor-Ingenieur. An education in industrial engineering was completed by courses in electrical and chemical engineering (Elektrotechnik and Chemie). It should be pointed out that this is a sign of up-to-date training and attention devoted by the school and its patron to the rapid development of industry in both fields. The course in electrical engineering included theory and measurements of direct and alternate currents; electric machines and workshops on their construction; electro-magnetic theory of light; fabrication and applications of lighting rods, galvanic plasticity, telegraphy, telephony; electric lines and electric railways; electric oscillations. It is clear how modern such subjects were in 1900. In addition, the course had an optional curriculum for those who wanted to specialize in illumination technology, with precise indications concerning special chemical laboratories for those interested in gas illumination. The course in chemical engineering gave students three options: a general course for the science and industry of chemical processes, one for food control, and finally one on chemical technologies and pharmacy; the latter two were seen as preparation for a final state examination. The three curricula had, as a common basis, the first three semesters, with the teaching of: theoretical and applied chemistry, both inorganic and organic; pharmaceutical chemistry; botanic; zoology; several laboratory activities in microscopy and different levels of applied chemistry; pharmaceutics of plants; petroleum derivates; textile fibre technology; kinetic theory of gases; thermochemistry. The general curriculum was completed by two semesters of autonomous research in a chemical or technical-chemical institution, under the direction of a tutor. The curriculum devoted to food industry and control states that the first six semesters should stress preparation in hygiene, bacteriology, botanic, and court chemistry. The seventh semester was devoted to practical activities in a laboratory of the polytechnic, and two more semesters were to be spent in the state department for food control. The curriculum devoted to pharmaceutics was completed by two semesters of compulsory and optional lectures on technical chemistry, bacteriology, laboratory activity, microscopy, and practical work in the botanic institute of the polytechnic. This also is a clear sign of an up-to-date
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Table 3 The attendance at the polytechnic in Karlsruhe, academic year 1900–1901 from the original syllabus of the Polytechnische Schule zu Karlsruhe for the academic year 1900-1901 General
Architecture
Civil
Mechanical
Electrical
Chemical
Forest
Audience
Total
Winter semester
16
235
204
358
277
164
12
98
1,364
Summer semester
10
213
201
376
272
154
10
25
1,262
education, aimed at promoting quick interaction with the rapidly emerging and developing German industries, and the need for an efficient state organization in all aspects of life. Again of note is the presence of a course in forest science. The programme declares that those wanting to enter state service after studies should certify their state of good health for employment as forest guards. Those attending without this aim did not need a certificate. The teachings included some already mentioned natural sciences (chemistry, mathematics, physics, botanic, zoology, mineralogy), plus fishing and fishing farms, forest entomology, plant knowledge, biology of cryptogams, meteorology, plant illnesses, anatomy and physiology of wood trees, mushroom parasites, wood rebuilding and maintenance, wood lanes and water flows, woods protection, plus laws concerning forests, fishing and hunting. It is apparent how, already at the turn of twentieth century (but it had been a part of the technical school since the first half of the nineteenth), this course had the aim of protecting woods and the environment as fundamentally interacting with all aspects of human life: wild animals, wood technologies, plantations, land protection, tourist activities. From this point of view, the ecologic sensitivity of Germans seems to be rooted in the past. The programme for the academic year 1900–1901 presents, with great pride, a detailed description of the grand duke’s permission to award doctorates, thus elevating the polytechnic to the same rank as a university. The senate of the school saw this permission as recognition of the research work of the school to promote progress and development of the country. The celebration ends with the doctorate ad honorem to the grand duke Friedrich and the dedication of the school, later called, as already said, Fridericiana. The programme continues with a description of promotions, retirements, sabbaticals, honours, and cultural exchanges with other technical schools on special occasions and jubilees. There is also a list of the pupils who completed their career and got the title of Diplom-Ingenieur, as well as a very detailed list of
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donations by public and private institutions to all the collections and laboratories of the polytechnic. It is very interesting to see that there is also a list of educational excursions and trips to buildings, firms, industries and other places of interest all over Germany for the students of all the different courses of the polytechnic. Civil engineering students went to check bridges and railway constructions, as well as instruments for land measurements. Students in mechanical engineering went to visit paper, steel, textile, engines, clockwork, wood, cellulose, and many other industries, as well as power stations and water control centres. Students in electrical engineering went to visit power stations and electric locomotives; those in chemical engineering to plants producing sugar, liqueurs, glass. Besides all this, excursions to woods, nature areas and zoos are listed. A map of the polytechnic completes the programme, with detailed descriptions of the buildings comprising it, and a list of all the staff (professors, researchers, assistants, private teachers, laboratory personnel, and others). Finally, facts are given about the preceding academic year. Some 1,300 people including regular students, guests and visitors followed the courses, as detailed below (Table 3).
4 Conclusive comments In this paper, we have begun an investigation of the higher technical schools in Europe and their development in the nineteenth century. Firstly, we provided a short sketch of the technical schools in some European countries, pointing out basic similarities and differences. Then, we focused on technical studies in German-speaking countries. We chose to take the polytechnic school in Karlsruhe as an example, since we had the occasion to examine copies of the original documents of the archive of that school. We presented here some key information on the syllabus, on the innovative aspects of the teaching, on the attendance, and other meaningful events of education there.
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To sum up, a short survey of the technical school in Karlsruhe may give us an idea of the very modern and multi-disciplinary technical education in Germany at the end of nineteenth century. It also may help us to compare this organization with those of other European countries, which will be the aim of further investigations.
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