Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454 DOI 10.1007/s10584-011-0237-z

Gender and occupational perspectives on adaptation to climate extremes in the Afram Plains of Ghana Samuel Nii Ardey Codjoe & Lucy Kafui Atidoh & Virginia Burkett

Received: 24 January 2011 / Accepted: 20 August 2011 / Published online: 8 September 2011 # Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract Although sub-Saharan Africa does not contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, significant adverse impacts of climate change are anticipated in this region. Countries in West Africa, which are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture, are projected to experience more frequent and intense droughts, altered rainfall patterns and increases in temperature through the end of this century. Changes in hydrology and temperature are likely to affect crop yields, thereby placing pressure on scarce resources in a region that is characterised by limited social, political, technical and financial resources. The success with which communities cope with the impacts of climate change is influenced by existing conditions, forces and characteristics which are peculiar to each of these communities. This paper assesses the preferred adaptation strategies during floods and droughts of males and females in three different occupations (farming, fishing, and charcoal production). Findings are based upon an analysis of focus group discussions and a ranking of preferred adaptation options in three communities in the Afram Plains of Ghana. Assessments of this nature should aid in the selection and implementation of adaptation options for communities and households, which is the level at which climate change adaptation is likely to occur in West Africa. 1 Introduction Adaptation to climate change has gained much recognition in academic research and its significance has been recognized in national and international policy debates (IPCC 2001). Adaptation has become important in sub-Saharan Africa because the physical impacts of climate change on livelihoods, as evidenced by recent floods, droughts, and warmer S. N. A. Codjoe (*) : L. K. Atidoh Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 96, Legon, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] L. K. Atidoh e-mail: [email protected] V. Burkett United States Geological Survey, 540 North Courthouse Street, Many, LA 71449, USA e-mail: [email protected]

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temperatures portend significant risks to human life and property. Research on the vulnerability of communities to climate change has concentrated on the expected impacts of climatic changes and, to a lesser extent, on adaptation strategies that could be undertaken to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change (Rosenzweig and Parry 1994; Parry et al. 1999; Berkhout et al. 2002; O’Brien et al. 2004; IPCC 2007). There is much discussion and literature on climate change and climate extremes, but very few applied research and case studies relating to adaptation that involve local community members. Furthermore, although sub-Saharan Africa does not contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions from a global perspective (Pilke 2010) this region will not escape the negative consequences of climate change. Several adaptation strategies have been proposed for the region in documents such as the Individual country National Adaptation Programmes of Action and National Communication reports to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, but these proposals are often very generic and lacking in terms of empirical data to support a ranking and selection of adaptation alternatives. They also do not assess in much detail how climate change stressors differentially impact various sectors of communities. Yet, the success with which communties cope with impacts of climate change is greatly determined by the existing conditions, forces and characteristics that are peculiar to each of these communities (Huq et al. 2003; Adger et al. 2003; Smit and Wandel 2006). This case study attempts to explore this situation by assessing the preferred adaptation strategies during floods and droughts of males and females in different occupations in three communities in the Afram Plains of Ghana: Xedzodzoekope, Mim Kyemfere, and Akyemfour (Fig. 1). The Afram Plains is one of the major food producing areas in Ghana, yet amongst the poorest districts. Fishing, farming and charcoal production are the major occupational categories in the three communities (Codjoe and Owusu 2011). Women in these 1040000

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Co mp ose d b y CE RS GIS Un iv ersit y of Gha na Leg on Te l 23 3 21 500 30 1 Fa x 233 21 5 00 310

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Fig. 1 Map of Afram Plains showing the location of the three study communities: Xedzodzoekope, Mim Kyemfere, and Akyemfour

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communities typically devote a high proportion of their energy and time to field crop production (Doka and Monimart 2004; Njuki et al. 2004). Male members of households often have better access to equipment, technology and information, but 12–49% of the male household members in the three communities are considered “absentee” because they have to travel outside of the community to find employment (Codjoe and Owusu 2011). Understanding these and other factors that influence the context in which adaptation is planned and implemented within a community should aid in the development of successful climate change adaptation strategies. 1.1 Adaptation Adaptation has been defined as the “adjustments in ecological, social, and economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (p. 869, IPCC 2007). The conceptual framework (Fig. 2) for this paper reflects the literature on adaptation and addresses the following questions raised by Smit et al. (2000), Smit and Wandel (2006): (i) Adaptation to what? (ii) Who or what is adapting? (iii) What adaptation strategies are available? A fourth question has been added in this investigation: How good is the adaptation strategy?

Adaptation to what? Climate related hazard Drought Flood

What Adaption Strategies are Available? Who adapts? Male/ Female Farmer Fisher Charcoal producer

How good is the adaptation strategy?

Drought

Flood

. Irrigation (IR)

. Community drain (CD)

. Water harvesting (WH) . Woodlots for charcoal (WLC) . Bush fire control (BFC) . Wells and boreholes (WB) . Sedentary pasture management (SPM) . Animal rearing (AR) . Fish pond (FP) . Fish culture (FC) . Non-timber forest products (NTFP) . Drought tolerant crops (DTC) . Post-harvest technology (PHT) . Crop insurance (CI) . Seasonal forecast (SF)

. Water harvesting (WH) . Woodlots for charcoal (WLC) . Upland cultivation (UC) . Vegetable cultivation (VC) . Improved roofing and foundation (IRF) . Drainage on farm (DF) . Fish pond (FP . Non-timber forest products (NTFP) . Post-harvest technology (PHT) . Crop insurance (CI) . Seasonal forecast (SF)

Evaluation of strategies Positive score Negative score No impact

Fig. 2 Conceptual framework showing climatic related hazards that are adapted to, groups that adapt, adaptation strategies and evaluation criteria of adaptation strategies (adapted from Smit et al. 2000)

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In answering the first question, Adaptation to what?, our case study concerns adaptation to droughts and floods. With regard to Who is adapting?, we examine actors at the community level—male and female farmers, fishers and charcoal producers. In many of the world’s drylands, including much of Africa, women’s traditional roles and knowledge in natural resource management and food security are considered crucial determinants of the food security status of households and communities (Gurung et al. 2006). Gender is therefore an important factor in assessing adaptation options in Africa, where women are usually responsible for the plots in which food crops are grown, while men are responsible for the plots on which cash crops are grown. Since women constitute the majority of the world’s poor and their livelihoods are often intimately linked with agriculture (East 2004; United Nations 2000; Gurung et al. 2006), the roles that women have are also considered more vulnerable to floods, droughts and other events that impact crop production. Since women play a dominant role in individual farm-based agricultural production in Ghana, women are likely to bear the primary responsibility for adaptation during floods and droughts–including finding alternative ways to feed their family (Canadian International Development Agency 2009). However, studies have shown that women have difficulty in accessing land, labour, credit, farm equipment, technical assistance and information (Preibisch et al. 2002; Njuki et al. 2004; Doka and Monimart 2004; Mitchell et al. 2007). Despite these obstacles, recent evidence demonstrates that women who are already experiencing the effects of weather-related hazards such as flooding and extended periods of drought are developing effective adaptation strategies to address the situation (CIDA 2009). Addressing the question “What adaptation strategies are available?”, the literature discusses processes of adaptation such as autonomous or planned, and reactive or anticipatory adaptation (Smit et al. 2000). Autonomous adaptation connotes spontaneity in the response while conscious interventions are made in planned adaptation (Fankhauser et al. 1999). Anticipatory adaptation involves deliberate decisions to prepare for potential adverse impacts before a climatic event or trend occurs, while reactive adaptation is undertaken after the event or trend has been observed. Finally, adaptation could be either short-term or long-term. The literature is replete with examples of adaptation strategies during floods and droughts (Bradshaw et al. 2002; Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn 2006; Maddison 2006; Nhemachena and Hassan 2007) as well as barriers to adaptation (Deressa et al. 2008). Adaptation strategies for droughts and floods identified in this paper are derived from a combination of literature reviews and from suggestions within the communities (see Fig. 2). In our opinion, the answer to the question “How good is the adaptation strategy?” must include an evaluation of the various adaptation strategies from the point of view of community members. 1.2 Climate change in West Africa with reference to Ghana West Africa is expected to undergo significant climatic change (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2000; Davidson et al. 2003; Huq et al. 2003; Orindi and Murray 2005; IPCC 2001, 2007). West African countries are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture. Recent data from the Sahel indicate that drought can even be linked to factors far-removed from local control, such as emissions of sulfate aerosols of Eurpoean and North American origin (Ackerley et al. 2011). The region is projected to experience changes in growing seasons, incidences of drought, altered rainfall distribution patterns and increases in temperature. This is expected to affect yields and put pressure on already scarce resources (Watson et al. 1998). This region of Africa is also characterized by limited social, political, technical and other resources to draw upon to combat problems of scarcity and poverty, constraining the ability to adapt to changing conditions (Westerhoff and Smit, 2008).

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For Ghana and the other countries in West Africa, climate models project a median temperature increase between 2°C and 4°C by 2100 compared to the period 1980–1999 (Christensen et al. 2007; EPA 2001; Hulme et al. 2001), which is about 1.5 times higher than the projected global increase in median temperature. Although average rainfall has declined in West Africa in recent decades (Boko et al. 2007), the ensemble of 21 climate models used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its Fourth Assessment Report indicates a 22% annual increase in the frequency of extreme wet seasons for West Africa by the end of this century (Christensen et al. 2007). These models suggest increased total precipitation in South Ghana and drying in the North, but the uncertainties about the spatial extent of the projected wetter and drier zones present serious challenges for adaptation planning. Moreover, the seasonal projections for the region suggest a shift in the bi-modal rainfall pattern, which has several implications for major sectors of the economy (Kunstmann and Jung 2005; Boko et al. 2007; Tschakert et al. 2010).

2 Study area The Afram Plains, one of the poorest and most neglected districts in Ghana, is located in the transition zone between the northern Sudan savannah and the more southern Guinea savannah. It has a mosaic of forest and savannah vegetation formations with a total land area of about 5,754 km2, of which about 2,725 km2 was submerged after the construction of the Volta Dam in the 1960s. Based on their geographical location, predominant economic activity, and demographic composition, three communities (Xedzodzoekope, Mim Kyemfere, and Akyemfour) were selected as representative of the rural communities in the Afram Plains district. Xedzodzoekope is located along the shoreline of an inlet in the Afram arm of Lake Volta approximately five miles from the town of Fori-Fori along the main road. The predominately Ewe community was officially established in 1968, and contains nearly 600 inhabitants.1 Fishing is the predominant livelihood while farming, herding, and charcoal production supplement incomes (Dietrich, 2010). The major crops grown in Xedzodzoekope are yam, cassava, groundnut, and maize. Vegetable (okro/okra, pepper, tomatoes, garden egg/eggplant) cultivation along the banks of the Afram River is also common. Mim Kyemfere is located 15 km to the southeast of the district capital Donkorkrom, and within four kilometres west of the main channel of the Volta River. This predominately Ewe community was established in 1964 as a Volta River Authority (VRA) resettlement community. Cultivation in Mim Kyemfere includes basic crops such as cassava, pepper, groundnut, cowpea, and maize, as well as experimental crops including cashew, citrus, sweet potato, acacia, and palm. While some members of the community are herders, a few are engaged in charcoal production. Finally, Akyemfour is located about a kilometre from Maame Krobo, the major market centre in the Afram Plains. It is also a migrant community with people from Volta, Northern, Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions of Ghana. Twi is the main language spoken in the community and members are mainly farmers and charcoal 1

Linguistically, the population of Ghana can be divided into four broad divisions: Akan (comprise about 20 sub-ethnic groups with similar cultural, social and political institutions and customs); Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, Ga-Dangme and Other minority ethnic groupings. As of 2000, the Akan represents the largest ethnic group with about 49% of the total population; Mole-Dagbani (16.5%); Ewe (12.7%); Ga-Dangme (8%) and Others (13.7%).

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producers with a few herders. The main crops grown are maize, yam, cassava, groundnut, cowpea, and pepper.

3 Methodology We used focus group discussions to undertake pair-wise ranking and scoring of adaptation strategies (listed in Fig. 2 and described in Table 1) as well as cross-impact matrix for males and females in the predominant occupations (farming, fishing and Table 1 Adaptation options during floods and droughts that were ranked and scored by focus group participants in each community Adaptation option

Explanation

Irrigation (IR)

artificial application of water to land to promote, in this case, agricultural production

Water harvesting (WH) Woodlots for charcoal (WLC)

collection of rainfall from roofs or other man-made structures patch of land planted with trees for the purpose of supplying the fuel and timber needs of a rural community

Bush fire control (BFC)

construction of channels which serve as fire belts on farms

Wells and boreholes (WB)

an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers

Sedentary pasture management (SPM)

confining cattle in ranches and providing them with water, feed and veterinary services

Animal rearing (AR) Fish pond (FP)

raising of ruminants at home controlled pond, artificial lake, or reservoir that is stocked with fish and is used in aquaculture for fish farming

Fish culture (FC)

the artificial propagation and breeding of fish in lakes, streams and ponds

Non-timber forest products (NTFP)

snails, mushrooms, crabs and other non-timber resources harvested from forestlands

Drought tolerant crops (DTC)

the use crops or strains of crops that can withstand typical or less than typical rainfall in a given geographic region, “drought tolerance” in this instance refers the degree to which a crop species is adapted to drought conditions

Post-harvest technology (PHT)

involves all treatment and processes that occur from time of harvesting until the foodstuff reaches the final consumer

Crop insurance (CI)

insurance purchased by agricultural producers, including farmers, ranchers, and others to protect themselves against either the loss of their crops due to natural disasters, such as drought, and floods, or the loss of revenue due to declines in the prices of agricultural commodities

Seasonal forecast (SF)

the attempt to predict the probability distribution for weather several months or more into the future

Community drain (CD) Upland cultivation (UC)

construction of channels in community to prevent flooding after heavy rains cultivation of crops on highlands or elevated areas during periods of floods or heavy rains

Vegetable cultivation (VC)

cultivation of vegetables along the bank of the lake after the recession of flood water

Improved roofing and foundation (IRF)

fortifying roofs and foundations of buildings to withstand floods

Drainage on farm (DF)

construction of channels on farms to prevent flooding

Note that acronyms correspond to those used in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8

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charcoal production) after the Akropong approach developed by Kemp-Benedict and Agyemang-Bonsu (2008). The focus group discussions for pair-wise ranking and scoring of adaptation options by farmers, fishers and charcoal producers were undertaken in Mim Kyemfere, Xedzodzoekope, and Akyemfour, respectively, because those communities had the majority of members engaged in those occupations. The cross-impact matrix was undertaken in Xedzodzoekope because it has the best representation of all three occupations. The procedure begins with each group pursuing a pair-wise ranking of past adaptation strategies and others from literature for the identified extreme climatic events (floods and droughts) in the community. A maximum of 15 participants per group compare each strategy to each other strategy using a matrix presented on a large sheet of paper. The strategy that is considered most effective for a given climate scenario is written unto the corresponding cell on the paper with symbols representing each adaptation strategy. Explanations for why a strategy is seen efficient or not are noted separately for use in interpreting results. At the end of the activity, the best 5 strategies are shortlisted. Regarding the cross-group impact assessment of preferred strategies, the best 12 strategies from the first focus group discussions are listed on a cross-impact matrix. Selected participants from each group are brought together (maximum 20 people) to understand whether the best strategies that were identified by each group have synergistic effects (reinforce each other) or have negative impacts on each other (undesirable side effects). Scoring is done and they are as follows: 0 = no impact; 1 = slight positive impact; 2 = strong positive impact; −1 = slight negative impact; −2 = strong negative impact. Once all impacts are evaluated, the top ranked 5 strategies are retained.

4 Results and discussions 4.1 Pair-wise ranking of preferred adaptation strategies for drought and flood 4.1.1 Drought Tables 2, 3 and 4 show scores for pair-wise ranking of preferred adaptation strategies for female and male farmers, fishers and charcoal producers, respectively, for drought. In these tables a higher score indicates a higher preference for an adaptation option. Female farmers scored wells and boreholes (13), bushfire control (12) and water harvesting (11) as the three most preferred adaptation strategies. Male farmers scored irrigation (12), wells and boreholes (12) and drought tolerant crops (11) as the three most preferred adaptation strategies. The females contend that they are the ones who are responsible for providing water for their families and, they spend significant amount of time daily hauling water from distant sources. As a result, wells and boreholes and water harvesting were considered as essential adaptation strategies during periods of drought. Both male and female farmers complained of unavailability of pipe-borne water in the community because wells often completely dry out during drought periods. With regard to the choice of bushfire control as the second most preferred adaptation strategy to drought, female farmers expressed the opinion that the gradual disappearance of non-timber forest products such as snails, mushrooms, and crabs was a result of bushfires. Males are mainly responsible for the main protein sources (grasscutter/cane rat, antelope, bush rat, wild pig, porcupine, and deer) of household meals; non-timber forest products are

AR

AR

IR

IR WB

SPM

NT AR

AR

NT

WB

AR

NTFP

IR

9

6

8

12

12

4

WH

SPM

WB WB

9

NT

WB

SPM

IR

SF

WH

SF

7 5

WB

SF

DTC

SPM

SF

PHT CI

WB

IR

IR

SF

PHT CI

IR

SF

PHT CI

0 6

IR

SF

NT NT

DTC

1

BFC

WB

PHT CI

DTC

WH

IR

WB WB

NT

BFC

BFC

IR

IR

DTC

2

8

SF

BFC

BFC

WB

NT

WH

SF

PHT

CI

IR

SPM

WLC

WH

CI

BFC

WB

WB

7 4

4

13

10

MALE WH

WH

WH

PHT

DTC

IR

IR AR

WH

BFC

BFC

NT

DTC

WLC

FP

SPM

WH

WB WB

WH

IR IR

IR

NTFP

BFC BFC

BFC

WB

FP

NT AR

SPM

WB

IR

12

WH WH

TOTAL SCORE

NT AR

SF

WH

SF

CI

SPM

PHT

PHT

WB

PHT

DTC

WH

DTC

NTFP

WB

FP

FP

IR

AR

AR

1

NT

NT

BFC

SPM AR

SPM

BFC

WB

WB

11

WB

IR

WH

BFC

BFC

WLC

BFC

WLC

WH

FEMALE

WH

Table 2 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male farmers—Drought

438 Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

WH

SF

WLC

CI

PHT

DTC

NTFP

FP

WLC

BFC

BFC

BFC

DTC

NTFP

FP

BFC

IR

IR

IR

IR

IR

FP

IR

WB

WB

WB

WB

WB

WB

WB

SPM

SPM

SPM

DTC

SPM

SPM

SPM

NT

NT

NT

DTC

NTFP

FP

NT

AR

AR

AR

DTC

AR

AR

AR

FP

FP

FP

DTC

FP

FP

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

WH

CI

DTC

DTC

CI

WH

NTFP

PHT

WH

FP

WH

Table 2 (continued)

SF

NTFP

NTFP

DTC

NTFP

DTC

DTC

DTC

DTC

SF

PHT

PHT

CI

CI

SF

2

3

2

11

5

8

TOTAL SCORE

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Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

Table 3 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male fishers—Drought WH

WLC BFC

IR

WB

FC

AR

FP

NTFP DTC PHT CI

SF TOTAL SCORE

FEMALE WH

1

WLC

WLC

BFC

BFC

BFC

2

IR

IR

IR

IR

WB

WB

WB

WB

IR

FC

FC

FC

FC

FC

FC

AR FP

AR FP

AR FP

AR FP

IR FP

AR FP

FC FP

FP

IR

WB

FC

AR

3 7 5 8 6 9

NTFP WH

WLC BFC

DTC

DTC

DTC

DTC DTC DTC FC

FP

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT PHT

PHT PHT

PHT

CI

CI

CI

CI

IR

WB

CI

AR

CI

CI

CI

PHT

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

DTC FP

0 DTC

7 10 7 SF

12

MALE WH WLC

WLC

0 2

BFC

BFC

BFC

IR

IR

IR

IR

WB

WB

WB

WB

IR

FC

FC

FC

FC

FC

FC

AR

AR

AR

AR

AR

AR

FC

FP

FP

FP

FP

FP

FP

FP

3 6 4 11

NTFP NTFP WLC BFC IR WB FC DTC DTC DTC DTC DTC DTC FC

7 FP

12

AR FP DTC FP

1 9

DTC

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

FC

PHT

FP

PHT

DTC

CI

CI

CI

CI

CI

CI

FC

CI

FP

CI

CI

CI

10

8

SF

SF

SF

SF

IR

SF

FC

AR

FP

SF

DTC PHT CI

5

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

mainly gathered by females and used as protein supplements. Accordingly, females ranked bushfire control more highly than did males. Studies by Boni and others (2004) in the Sefwi Wiawso District of Ghana and United Nations Population Fund (2009) in Kenya showed that women are generally more sensitive to environmental issues compared to men. Irrigation was ranked as the first choice adaptation strategy among male farmers, perhaps because of the socially ascribed expectation that they should provide infrastructure and income for the household (Brody et al. 2008). Access to irrigation will enable them to cultivate crops all year round, a situation which will provide more stable income for their families. Furthermore, in their opinion, irrigation will help maximize the efficiency of land use and labour as well as retain soil fertility. Male farmers also scored wells and boreholes in the top three most preferred strategies, providing ample testimony to the importance of water in the communities. The use of drought tolerant crops is the third preferred adaptation strategy for male farmers during drought. Males contend that they have relatively easy

AR

AR

SPM NT

AR

WB

SPM

AR

AR

AR

SPM NT

SPM IR

SPM NT

WB

SPM NT

WB

8

11 4

10

5

5

WB

IR

WB

4 13

7

IR

CI SF

IR

FP SF

5

3

AR SF

PHT

BFC

SPM

CI SF

AR

BFC

SPM WB

SPM SF

PHT

0

0

WB

WB SF

SPM

AR

WLC

BFC

IR SF

WB

DTC

NT

8

9

1

WLC

BFC

BFC SF

PHT

SPM

SPM

6 12 11

WH

MALE

CI SF

BFC

WB

WB

DTC SF

CI SF

CI SF

PHT

IR

IR PHT

WH

BFC

BFC FP

PHT

DTC

WLC

SPM AR

DTC

WB

FP

WH

FP

SPM

DTC

BFC

WB

WB

NTFP

FP

AR

IR

FP

AR

BFC

WB SPM

9

FP

AR

WLC

WB SPM

IR

AR

TOTAL SCORE

AR

SF

WH

SF

CI

NT

PHT SF

PHT

WB SPM

PHT

DTC

WB SPM

DTC

NTFP

IR

FP

FP

IR

FP

AR

2

AR

NT

BFC

SPM

SPM

BFC

WB

WB

4

WB SPM

IR

WH

BFC

BFC

WLC

BFC

WLC

WH

FEMALE

WH

Table 4 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male charcoal producers—Drought

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454 441

NTFP

DTC

PHT

CI SF

NTFP

DTC

PHT

CI SF

CI SF

WLC

DTC

WLC

FP

WLC

CI SF

BFC

DTC

BFC

FP

BFC

CI SF

IR

DTC

IR

FP

IR

CI SF

WB

WB

WB

WB

WB

CI SF

SPM

SPM

SPM

SPM

SPM

CI SF

PHT

DTC

NT

FP

NT

CI SF

AR

DTC

AR

AR

AR

CI SF

PHT

DTC

FP

FP

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

FP

FP

WH

Table 4 (continued)

CI SF

PHT

DTC

NTFP

CI SF

DTC

DTC

CI SF

PHT

CI

CI

SF

13 12

4

9

1

6

TOTAL SCORE

442 Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

443

access to drought tolerant crop seed. Recalling that women did not rank access to drought tolerant crops as highly as did men, perhaps this confirms the findings of Gurung and others (2006) that men have better access to technology and information. Our analysis revealed three main differences between male and female farmers regarding preferred adaptation strategies for drought. Firstly, male farmers scored sedentary pasture management twice as high as their female counterparts. According to the male farmers, the Fulani herders mostly camp in tents outside the communities but they are usually found with their cattle grazing in the community during the day. The free roaming cattle destroy their crops as well as the natural vegetation, and they are unable to locate the herders responsible for compensation. This situation has become worrisome and created many conflicts between farmers and cattle herders (Tonah 2002). Male farmers claim that they lose most of their crops and are left with very little resources for the upkeep of their families. Thus, in their view, confining cattle in a ranch will ease their problems. One male farmer shared his experience as follows; One morning, I went to my farm to see the whole farm trampled upon by cattle. All my food crops were eaten and destroyed. I reported the incident to the chief in the community but I could not recover anything. Till date, I have not been able to identify the owners and herders of the cattle responsible for my crop destruction. Secondly, female farmers ranked seasonal forecasts almost five times higher than their male counterparts. According to female farmers, access to seasonal forecasts will enable them to prepare better for the season in terms of knowing when to till farm lands and plant their crops; and decide on the appropriate crops to grow for the season. Based on their experiences over the years, each season determines the kinds of crop to grow. For example, pepper, cowpea, and groundnuts do well all year round while rice, maize and yam are season-specific. For instance, the female farmers stated that it is very important to know the onset of the rains to enable them to prepare the land and plant yams. Failure to do this in their view will result in low yields. Even though female farmers attested to the fact that seasonal forecasts could be misleading, in their opinion it was better to have it than to rely on their own local knowledge. However, the male farmers stated that they rely on their local knowledge to predict the season because information provided by the Meteorological Services Department was unreliable. In addition, although a few of the farmers owned radio sets, the unavailability of electricity in the communities makes accessibility to weather information disseminated on air quite difficult. Thirdly, male farmers scored animal rearing almost two times higher in order of preference and fish ponds four times higher compared to females. The pair-wise ranking also shows that both male and female farmers scored woodlots for charcoal production very low (1). Reasons for this include the following: trees take a long time to grow; trees occupy space suitable for crop production; and some tree plants are not edible. However, it was expected that females will have more preference for woodlots for charcoal production, since they are mainly responsible for household energy management, and, preference for woodlots would help reduce time spent in searching and collecting wood at the expense of other economic activities. The three most preferred adaptation strategies for female fishers during drought are seasonal forecasts (12), post-harvest technology (10) and fish pond (9), and for male fishers they are fish pond (12), fish culture (11) and crop insurance (10). According to the female fishers, since they are unable to go deep fishing on the lake compared to males (UNFPA 2009) access to daily weather information will help them know when to go fishing. Female fishers scored the need for post-harvest technology as the second preferred adaptation

444

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

strategy during drought, because post-harvest fishing activities provided a wide range of full-time and seasonal livelihood opportunities. These activities mostly included salting, smoking and the subsequent sale of fish during the lean season to provide extra income. Furthermore, male fishers scored fish ponds and fish culture as their first and second adaptation strategies for drought because they are both regular sources of income. They stated that fish could be used as batter for vegetables and other food crops during periods of drought to supplement household food requirements. In addition, a fish pond as an adaptation strategy during drought will create employment for local community members who are involved in fish processing and selling. The male fishers expressed concern about the sustainability of fishing activities on the Volta Lake during drought, which helps explain why they preferred fish ponds and fish culture as an adaptation. The male fishers further added that during periods of drought, there is low fish catch because the water level of the lake drops, and this drives fishes into deep waters. The group agreed that fishing in a pond is more beneficial and convenient than fishing in the lake. One elderly man noted that: In the past, there were some activities and taboos to protect the lake including offering sacrifices to the gods of the lake at the end of the major and minor rainy seasons, non-fishing on Thursdays, and prohibition of women in their menstrual period entering the lake. Unfortunately, all of these are not being observed, resulting in low fish harvests. Increase in population size is also a contributing factor to pressures on the lake. There were only few of us in this community in the past, however, these days look at how our numbers have increased. We used to go fishing on particular days, but now fishing is done all day, all week and all year. I think that is why the young fishes do not grow well and we don’t also get a lot. Male fishers scored crop insurance (10) higher than did female fishers (7). The males asserted that if their crops are insured and there is prolonged drought resulting in low fish catch, they could be compensated with resources to improve upon their livelihood. Least preferred adaptation strategies among male fishers were water harvesting and non-timber forest products. Neither male nor female fishers preferred water harvesting as an adaptation because almost all the buildings in the community have thatched roofs, which preclude the harvest of clean water via roof collection systems. In addition, the communities are located near the Volta Lake, thus, all year round access to water is possible. Non-timber forest products were the least preferred adaptation option because these forest resources (e.g., snails, mushrooms and crabs) are difficult to find during periods of drought. The preferred adaptation strategies for male and female charcoal producers during drought are shown in Table 4. Seasonal forecasts (13), wells and boreholes (12) and sedentary pasture management (11) are the top three adaption strategies for female charcoal producers, while, crop insurance (13), seasonal forecasts (12) and sedentary pasture management (11) are most preferred by male charcoal producers. As stated earlier, charcoal producers have farming or fishing as minor occupations, thus, the highly scored adaptation strategies of charcoal producers and reasons provided are similar to farmers and fishers. Sedentary pasture management is the only exception. According to the charcoal producers, apart from impacts on food crops, cattle also destroy charcoal on their fields by stepping on the bigger twigs and breaking them into smaller pieces. This reduces the value of the charcoal in the market since most buyers prefer the large-sized pieces of charcoal. In addition, seasonal forecast was highly scored by male charcoal producers, because in their opinion, it was necessary to have weather information so that the best choices of trees to be used in the season could be determined. According to them, tree species such as Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sapele), Terminalia superb (Ofram), Euphoria longana

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

445

(Euphoria), and Acacia spp (Acacia) are highly flammable, and for that reason suitable for use during periods of floods, whilst less flammable tree species such as Azadirachta indica (Neem), Chlorophora excels (Odum), and Tectona grandis (Teak) are suitable for drought. Non-timber forest products and woodlots for charcoal production were least preferred by both male and female charcoal producers. Although they recognize the importance of growing and conserving trees, and the fact that non-timber forest products can reduce their vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, they were of the view that the forest was the source of raw material for their occupation. In addition, non-timber forest products were not readily available in recent times. Thus, they were not seen as a sustainable adaptation strategy in the event of a drought. A female participant made the following observation: The community used to have a very thick forest with easy access to snails, grasscutters, rats and other animals. Source of animal protein for cooking was not a problem about a decade or more ago. But now, the trees are gone and the weather has changed so we don’t have these forest products in the community or on our farms anymore. I cannot recall the last time I saw snails or mushrooms on my farm. Finally, within the occupations, wells and boreholes, irrigation and water harvesting were the three most preferred adaptation strategies for farmers during drought. While the three most preferred adaptation strategies among fishers were fish pond, fish culture and post-harvest technology, among charcoal producers they were seasonal forecast, wells and boreholes and sedentary pasture management. 4.1.2 Flood Tables 5, 6, and 7, respectively, show the preferred adaptation strategies for male and female farmers, fishers and charcoal producers during floods. Improved roofing and foundation attained the highest score for both female and male farmers. While post-harvest technology and crop insurance, were the second and third most preferred adaptation strategies for the female farmers, construction of community drains and cultivation of upland crops were the second and third most preferred adaptation strategies for the male farmers. During periods of flood, women lose their major sources of income and food due to bad harvests. In addition, hikes in food prices in the market render food inaccessible to poor people, especially women and girls, who have been found to experience more health problems compared to males in times of food shortages (UN 2009). Females scored post-harvest technology, which will help process and preserve the scanty food available, higher than males. Male farmers scored upland cultivation higher than females. Traditionally women’s land rights are restricted making it difficult for them to procure land for environmentally sustainable farming practices such as upland crop cultivation (Lambrou and Piana 2006). Female farmers scored water harvesting three times less compared to males. Females were of the view that in times of floods water is available, so there was no need to score water harvesting as a high priority. Furthermore, male farmers scored vegetable cultivation after floods and the cultivation of water loving crops two times higher than females. Nontimber forest products and woodlots for charcoal production were less preferred as an adaptation by both groups during floods. According to the farmers, these natural resources are not always available, and thus, could not be relied on during periods of flood. Table 6 shows that the three most preferred adaptation strategies during floods for female fishers include seasonal forecast, improved roofing and foundation and post-harvest

446

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

Table 5 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male farmers—Flood CD

WH

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

PHT

CI SF NTFP TOTAL SCORE

FEMALES CD

7

WH

CD

WLC

CD

WH

2

UC

CD

UC

UC

VCF

CD

VCF

VCF

1 7 UC

3

CWLP CD

CWLP CWLP UC

CWLP

IRF DF

IRF CD

IFR DF

IRF DF

PHT

4

IRF DF

IRF DF

IRF DF

11 7

PHT PHT

PHT

PHT PHT

PHT

IRF PHT

CI

CI

CI

CI

UC

CI

CI

IRF CI

PHT

SF

SF

SF

SF

UC

SF

SF

IRF DF

SF

CI

7

NTFP

CD

WH

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

PHT

CI SF

0

IRF

9 8

MALE CD

10

WH WLC

CD CD

WH

6 1

UC

CD

UC

UC

VCF

CD

WH

VCF

9 UC

6

CWLP CD

CWLP CWLP UC

CWLP

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

DF

CD

DF

DF

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF

PHT

CD

WH

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

CI SF

CD CD

WH WH

CI SF

UC UC

VCF VCF

CWLP IRF DF CWLP IRF DF

CI SF

NTFP

CD

WH

NTFP

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

NTFP CI SF

IRF

8 IRF

11 6 0 CI

4 3 2

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

technology, and for male fishers they are improved roofing and foundation, construction of community drains and drainage on farms. Seasonal forecasts, improved roofing and foundation and post-harvest technology were preferred for similar reasons mentioned earlier in this paper. However, from the point of view of male fishers, there are no drainage systems and gutters in the community. As a result, there is no free flow of water when it rained. Furthermore, several males pointed out that stagnant water in the community during floods serves as breeding sites for mosquitoes and increases malaria prevalence. The analysis further shows that the construction of drains on farms and in the community during floods were given lower scores by female compared to male fishers. According to the female fishers, construction of drains and gutters were the responsibility of males because they are stronger and could dig drainage gutters. Furthermore, female fishers and their male counterparts almost scored vegetable cultivation after floods equally. Both groups acknowledged the high yield of vegetable cultivation at the banks of the lake after floods. This is because the flooded soil retains water for a considerable length of time and this aided good vegetable growth and yield. Non-timber forest products, water

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

447

Table 6 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male fishers—Flood CD

WH

WLC

VCF

IRF

DF

PHT

SF

NTFP

TOTAL SCORE

FEMALE CD

2

WH

WH

WLC

WLC

WLC

3

VCF

VCF

VCF

VCF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

DF

CD

WH

DF

VCF

IRF

PHT SF

PHT SF

PHT SF

PHT SF

PHT SF

IRF SF

PHT SF

SF

NTFP

CD

WH

WLC

VCF

IRF

DF

PHT

3 5 7 2 6 8 SF

0

MALE CD

7

WH

CD

WLC

CD

WLC

0

VCF

CD

VCF

VCF

IRF DF

IRF CD

IRF DF

IRF DF

IRF DF

IRF

PHT

CD

PHT

PHT

PHT

IRF

DF

SF

CD

SF

SF

VCF

IRF

DF

PHT

NTFP

CD

NTFP

WLC

VCF

IRF

DF

PHT

2 4 8 6 5 2 NTFP

2

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

harvesting and woodlots for charcoal production were least preferred by both female and male fishers. It was expected, however, that female fishers would have high preference for woodlots for charcoal production because of their involvement in fish smoking. Finally, Table 7 shows that seasonal forecasts, improved roofing and foundation and construction of community drains, were the three most preferred adaption strategies for female charcoal producers during floods. In the case of male charcoal producers, crop insurance, seasonal forecast and improved roofing and foundation were scored in that order. The least preferred adaption strategy for both groups is water harvesting. The reasons given for the choice of these adaption strategies are similar to the ones for other occupational categories already discussed in this paper. The analysis of the occupations showed that improved roofing and foundation, construction of community drains and upland cultivation are the three most preferred adaptation strategies for farmers during floods. As far as fishers are concerned, the three most preferred strategies are improved roofing and foundation, post-harvest technology and seasonal forecast. Finally, seasonal forecast, improved roofing and foundation and crop insurance were ranked as the three most preferred adaptation choices during floods among charcoal producers. 4.2 Cross-sector analysis of adaptation strategies Table 8 shows that seasonal forecasts and sedentary pasture management were among the top three strategies that had the highest net impact in both female and male groups. In

448

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

Table 7 Preferred adaptation strategies of female and male charcoal producers—Flood CD

WH

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

PHT CI SF NTFP TOTAL SCORE

FEMALE CD

9

WH

CD

WLC

CD

WLC

1

UC

CD

UC

WLC

VCF

CD

VCF

WLC

6 4 UC

3

CWLP CD

CWLP CWLP CWLP CWLP

IRF DF

IRF CD

IRF DF

IRF WLC

PHT

CD

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

CWLP IRF PHT

CI

CD

CI

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

PHT

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

SF

NTFP

CD

WH

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

IRF DF

IRF DF

8 IRF CWLP IRF

SF

10 5

SF

7 2 SF

PHT CI SF

11 4

MALE CD

1

WH WLC

WH WLC

WLC

1 3

UC

UC

UC

UC

VCF

VCF

VCF

VCF

8 UC

5

CWLP CWLP CWLP CWLP UC

VCF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

IRF

4

DF

CD

DF

DF

UC

DF

DF

PHT

PHT

PHT

PHT

UC

PHT

PHT

IRF DF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

CI SF

NTFP

NTFP

NTFP

WLC

UC

VCF

CWLP IRF DF

9 IRF

6 CI SF

6 CI SF

CI

PHT CI SF

11 10 2

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

addition, bush fire control and construction of community drains, were, respectively, the other most preferred adaptation strategies among female and male groups. The male group considered information from seasonal forecasts to have strong positive impacts on community drains, crop insurance and upland crop cultivation, while for the females, seasonal forecasts had a strong positive impact on post harvest technology. The males were of the view that access to weather information will guide farmers to create community drains for runoff which will help prevent stagnation of water, subsequently reducing breeding sites for mosquitoes, and ultimately reducing the prevalence of malaria. In addition, information from seasonal forecasts prior to the major or minor cropping seasons will assist farmers in making informed choices about crop insurance. Early information from seasonal forecasts will guide farmers to choose suitable locations to cultivate during periods of flood and drought. According to the males, it is beneficial to crop upland during floods to prevent flooding and on lowland during

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

449

Table 8 Cross-sectional impact on the most preferred adaptation strategies of female and male farmers, fishers and charcoal producers during floods and droughts Farmers

Fishers

Charcoal producers

FEMALES Impacting strategies

IRF

IRF

PHT

WB

BFC

SF

VC

FP

FC

CD

CWLP

SPM

AR

Impact of activities

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0 0

0 0

1 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 1

0 1

3 4

0

2

2

2

0

2

0

2

12

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

7

0

1

0

0

0

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

4

0

1 0

−1 5

PHT WB

1 1

0

BFC

0

2

0

SF

1

2

0

1

VC

0

1

0

0

0

FP

0

0

0

0

0

0

FC

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

CD

2

0

0

0

0

0

−1

1

CWLP SPM

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 1

−1 1

−1 1

0 0

1

AR

0

0

0

0

0

−2

0

0

0

−2

0

impacts on target activity

5

5

0

2

0

4

1

4

2

2

2

7

34

IRF

IR

CD

WB

DF

PHT

FP

FC

CI

SF

SPM

UC

Impact of Activities

IRF

-

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

IR

1

0

0

−1

2

1

0

2

0

0

−2

3

CD

2

1

0

0

2

−1

2

0

0

1

0

7

WB DF

0 0

0 1

0

0 0

0 −1

0 −1

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

1 −1

0

0

−1

0

0

0

−1

1

2

0

0

0

5

2

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

3

0

2

8

1

7

1

0 38

−4

MALES Impacting strategies

0 0

0

PHT

0

0

0

0

0

FP

0

0

0

0

0

2

FC

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

CI

0

0

1

0

0

2

0

0

SF

1

1

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

SPM

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

−1

1

UC impacts on target activity

1 7

−2 3

0 4

0 0

0 −1

1 12

−1 −2

−1 3

0 6

1 2

1 3

Field work, 2009. Explanation of adaptation codes provided in Table 1 and conceptual framework (Fig. 2)

drought to help conserve soil moisture. Some females expressed the opinion that drying is a key component of most of the local food processing and storage techniques. Thus, extreme dryness will aid processing and storage, while flooding and cold conditions may hamper food storage. Seasonal forecast would therefore greatly assist them in their post harvest activities hence a positive impact was recorded. Sedentary pasture management had strong positive impacts on improved roofing and foundation as well as irrigation among males because the confinement of cattle would prevent them from destroying building structures and irrigation pumps. In

450

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

addition, sedentary pasture management had a strong positive impact on fish culture because the destruction of vegetation by cattle grazing along the lake will be prevented. This will help preserve the breeding grounds of fishes and increase the fish stock. The male group further explained that cattle physically scare fishes away to deep waters by making the lake muddy when drinking. Thus, putting the cattle in a ranch will prevent all the negative outcomes outlined. On the other hand, the males were of the view that sedentary pasture management will have a negative impact on crop insurance. This is because there would be no need to insure their crops if the cattle which they consider as the major destroyer of their farms are confined to a ranch. Among the females, sedentary pasture management had slight positive impacts on bush fire control, vegetable cultivation after floods, fish pond, fish culture, and cultivation of water loving plants. The female group stated that if cattle are kept in enclosed ranches, it will prevent them from trampling on their vegetables and water loving plants and destroying their fish ponds and nets used for fish culture. Among the female group, bushfire control had strong positive impacts on postharvest technology, vegetable cultivation after floods, fish pond, fish culture, cultivation of water loving plants and animal rearing. In the view of the females their farm produce is stored in cribs made of dry wood. Thus, the construction of fire belts will help protect food produce from fire outbreak during droughts. The group further stated that bushfires in 1983 destroyed soil organic matter that affected their crop yields in the subsequent season. Thus, bushfire control will have strong positive impact on vegetable cultivation and the cultivation of water loving plants. Regarding the positive impact of bushfire control on fish ponds and fish culture, the females stated that trees play an important role in preventing evaporation of the lake and they also render the lake conducive for fish growth and breeding since their leaves can serve as feed for the fish in the lake. As a result, construction of fire belts will prevent the burning of trees around the banks of the lake which will aid fish breeding and subsequently, bumper fish harvests. Finally, construction of fire belts in their opinion will prevent animals reared on their farms from being burnt during fire outbreak, which occurred commonly during the 1983 drought. Among the males, construction of a community drainage system was viewed as having strong positive impacts on the following adaptations: improved roofing and foundation, post-harvest technology and fish culture. Community drains will enhance water run-off and reduce damage to buildings. Also, channels created for run-off will help prevent flooding of post-harvest structures that help conserve harvests, and run-off water entering the lake could be conducive for fish growth. It was noted, however, that sediment from run-off water may enter fish ponds, causing siltation and subsequent death of fish. Table 8 further shows that fish pond and fish culture did not have net impact on the prioritization of adaptation strategies among the females. However, the same strategies had strong positive impacts on post-harvest technology and crop insurance among males. Male farmers were of the view that the presence of a fish pond or fish culture will encourage fishers to construct storage facilities. In addition, access to the two strategies will be good sources of income for fishers which could be used to buy premiums to insure their crops. Upland cultivation was viewed as having negative impacts on irrigation, fish pond and fish culture among males. The reasons provided were as follows: connection of irrigation pipes to upland areas could be difficult and expensive and agricultural chemicals applied to crops for growth on uplands could be washed into fish ponds and lakes causing death of fish (see Dontwi et al., 2009).

Climatic Change (2012) 110:431–454

451

5 Conclusions Sub-Saharan Africa does not contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, yet, it is one region of the world that may be hardest hit by the impacts of climate change. Climate change is projected to intensify floods and droughts in Ghana, a region in which these climate extremes already pose severe economic hardships. Since climate change is not likely to be mitigated2 significantly in rural Ghana, the primary societal response to climate change in this region is adaptation. The responses of communities and households to prior droughts and floods provides a starting point for future adaptation planning. Although several adaptation strategies have been proposed, they do not generally consider how climate change stressors differentially impact various occupations and genders within communities. Yet, the success with which communties cope with impacts of climate change is greatly determined by the existing conditions, forces and characteristics which are peculiar to each community. This study provides a quantitative assessment of the preferred adaptation strategies to floods and droughts of males and females in different occupations in three communities of the Afram Plains as a case study. Results from pair-wise ranking and scoring of adaptation preferences among genders and occupations shows some similarities as well as some differences. For example, the most preferred adaptation strategy during drought is the constructions of wells and boreholes for females and crop insurance for males. However, during periods of floods the top ranked adaptation strategy for both males and females is the improvement of roofing and foundations for their houses. With respect to the occupation preferences, construction of wells and boreholes, fish ponds and seasonal forecasts are the most preferred adaptation strategies for farmers, fishers and charcoal producers, respectively, during periods of drought. However, during periods of floods, improved roofing and foundation is the most preferred strategy for farmers and fishers, and seasonal forecast is the most preferred strategy for charcoal producers. Some of the differences include a higher preference for sedentary pasture management, animal rearing and fish ponds for male farmers, and higher preference for seasonal forecasts for female farmers. Furthermore, while male fishers preferred crop insurance their counterpart charcoal producers preferred seasonal forecast compared to their female counterparts. Regarding adaptation strategies for floods, female farmers scored water harvesting more than male farmers but the construction of community drains less than their male counterparts. A cross-impact assessment also revealed that while certain adaptation strategies are perceived to have synergistic effects (reinforce each other) others could have negative impacts (undesirable side effects). Women are disproportionately affected by flood and droughts in the developing world. Despite their roles and extensive knowledge, women living in drylands of Africa (who tend to rank among the poorest of the poor) often face disproportionate constraints in their efforts to support themselves and those who depend upon them (Gurung et al. 2006; Canadian International Development Association 2009). Because ownership and decisionmaking over land and livestock are predominantly the domain of men, women are excluded from participation in land conservation and development projects and are generally less likely to receive the benefits of agricultural extension work (East 2004; Doka and Monimart 2004; Gurung et al. 2006). Mitigation is defined by the IPCC (2007, page 878) as “An anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks.”

2

452

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This study clearly shows that there are gender preferences in adaptation to floods and droughts in this part of Africa, and prior studies referenced in this paper suggest that gender preferences are likely in other impoverished regions. Understanding differences in the priorities that women place on adaptation may prove to be important in the effectiveness of climate change adaptation—and the sustainability of communities. In addition to preferences among certain sectors of communities, this study also provides insights about interactions among potential strategies for adapting to climate change. It may also help advance the “mainstreaming” or incorporating climate adaptation concerns into other, ongoing processes (such as water management, pasture and forest management). It can be argued that while rural agricultural communities may exhibit certain similar characteristics, they are not homogeneous and as such adaptation strategies of these communities would differ. As already stated, while it is the consensus that adaptation should be the key in sub-Saharan Africa as far as climate change is concerned, there is scanty empirical research on the phenomenon. Locally specific research such as the present study in the Afram Plains offers opportunities for analyzing the adaptation preferences and perceptions within communities. Understanding this local context and the responses of communities to past climate extremes should aid significantly in the design of effective solutions to address the challenges associated with climatic change and extremes in rural Ghana.

Acknowledgement We are grateful to the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) for providing funds for the Food Security and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Afram Plains Project (# CCP 07 08). Further support from the Climate Change and Learning Observatory Network in Ghana Project (EEM-A-00-66-00014) sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development is also acknowledged. We are also grateful to Petra Tschakert of the Penn State University and Regina Sagoe of the Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana for assisting with data collection. We also want to take this opportunity to sincerely thank the anonymous reviewers and the Editor-in-Chief for their useful and constructive suggestions, which has greatly enhanced the quality of this paper.

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