GIRLS' EDUCATION IN THE KIBBUTZ

125

Hameshuta[, June 1962 (in Hebrew); Z. GALILI, "The Integration of the Girl in Work and Community Life", Mibi/nim, 26, Nos. 1-2, 1967 p. 17 (ill Hebrew): M. GERSON, "The Attitude of Girls to Work", Hedim, October 1956, p. 144 (in Hebrew). 5 I. GOLAN, "The Development of the Girl at Kindergarten Age", thesis in psychology at the Kibbutz Teacher Seminary, Oranim, 1963. (in Hebrew). 6 B. BETTELI~EIM, op. cir., Ch. 3. 7 E. GILAI, "On the Education of the Girl in tile Second Phase of Adolescence", Hachinuch Hameshuta[, June 1962, p. 32 (in Hebrew). s Ibid. 9 A. I. RABIN, "Some Sex Differences in the Attitudes of Kibbutz Adolescents", The Israel Annals o[ Psychiatry and Related Disciplines, 6, 1968, No. 1, pp. 62-9. 10 L. ])&'CON, "The Education of the Girl in tile Kibbutz", thesis in pedagogy at the Kibbutz Teacher Seminary, Oranim, 1967, pp. 38-9 (in Hebrew). 11 Social Research Centre of the Kibbutz, Givat Haviva, Attitudes and Desiderata in the sphere o/ Work and Study (Findings from Research on the Kibbutz's Second Generation), Givat Haviva, 1972, p. 2 (mimeographed, in Hebrew). 12 Ibid. la Ibid., pp. 2-5. 14 Social Research Centre, Givat Haviva, The Attitudes in the Cultural Sphere in the Kibbutz (Findings from Research on the Kibbutz's Second Generation), Givat Haviva, 1971, p. 27 (mimeographed, in Hebrew). la M. ROSNER, Summary o~ Research on the Women Members o/ the Kibbutz Givat Haviva: Social Research Centre, pp. 30-1 (in Hebrew).

HOME ECONOMICS AND T H E CHANGING ROLES OF MEN AND WOMEN by EDITH KJAERSGAARD,Ministry of Education, Denmark The idea of establishing home economics as an educational subject in Denmark was first broached more t h a n a hundred years ago. At the beginning of the twentieth century, home economics found its way into the primary schools, and the first home economics schools and colleges became a reality. I n 1937 the subject became obligatory for girls only b u t in 1970 it became obligatory for both sexes. However, at m a n y schools throughout the country it had already been taught to both girls and boys for a number of years. The obligatory teaching of home economics takes place in the 7th year of schooling, with three hours teaching per week. After the 7th grade it is possible for both boys and girls to continue with home economics education at courses held at a variety of institutions. Approximately half the number of all 14-18 year olds attend continuation schools and of these one-third choose home economics. 1 A particularly successful course has been "The Home and Family" which, as the name indicates, includes more than just instruction concerning food and cooking. I n 1968/69, 20,104 girls and 9,380 boys attended home economics courses at continuation schools. At residential continuation schools, (an alternative to the senior classes of the primary schools, after completing the basic seven years of schooling) there are courses of 20-40 weeks for 14-18 year olds and here again home economics is taught. There are also home economics schools which offer courses to pupils from the age of 16 upwards. Here the emphasis is p u t on the management of a home, on rational

126

COMMUNICATIONS -- BERICHTE -- COMMUNICATIONS

use of the various domestic aids available, and on consumer education. Furthermore, the schools offer short courses on specific home economics subjects of varying lengths and aimed at various age groups. Home economics consultants are employed to teach adults, primarily in the rural areas. The consultant service organises lectures, study groups and courses dealing with such subjects as nourishment, rationaHsation, budgets and accounts, interior decoration and childcare. The consultants furthermore coordinate dietary research, domestic budgeting and accounts. I t has long been suggested b y the Consumers' Commission, which is under the Ministry of Commerce and runs the consultant service, t h a t the latter would be improved by making it work on a wider scale and b y setting up a Consumer Advisory Centre offering a wide range of information to consumers.

There is undoubtedly a strong tradition in Denmark to follow studies in home management; b y making home economics courses available at various levels, all those who are interested have an opportunity to acquire the necessary knowledge. The tradition has so far mainly been kept up by girls, b u t it is hoped t h a t both sexes will eventually participate on equal terms. I t is relevant that both sexes understand and are trained in the planning and rationalisation of housework. Here as elsewhere it is possible to simplify and to utilise the time saved for other purposes. The rationalisation of housework was a contributing factor to the increase ill outside employment among women. I n Denmark in 1970 57% of all married women between the ages of 20-55 worked outside the home. Home economics teaching also comprises various aspects of family life, such as child care and the upbringing of children, child psychology and parental responsibility. Other subjects include housing, the arrangement of rooms and the use of these rooms in the most effective manner. The traditions of family life are also critically evaluated, including the division of labour within the family.

Teacher training To enable teachers to teach a subject in the process of development it is necessary for teacher training itself to be restructured. This is true of the two different forms of home economics teacher training. At the primary schools home economics is being taught b y primary school teachers who have been trained at a teacher training college (3-4 years) with special ~tudies in home economics. This training was reformed in 1969. Home economics teaching at other schools and the consultative services are almost exclusively the domain of specialist home economics teachers. Their training scheme is at present subject to radical restructuring and a new act was passed by Parliament in the spring of 1972 dealing with it. E n t r y requirements will be raised to the same as that for entry to the universities. Traditionally the main emphasis was p u t on the natural sciences, such as general physics, organic chemistry and microbiology, and on the sciences of dietetics, biochemistry, nutrition and cooking. The aim is now to give equal emphasis to subjects affecting the consumer and the family, educational theory and practice, and to psychology. The revised training will probably be so planned t h a t it can be completed in 3½ years. The Association of Home Economics Educationalists is working for continuation and further education on a broad basis at regional, national and also on Scandinavian levels. The Ministry of Education organises and offers seminars, conferences and

HOME ECONOMICS AND THE CHANGING ROLES OF MEN AND WOMEN

127

courses. At Arhus University courses are held for home economics educationalists from all the Scandinavian countries; there are two different courses, each lasting ten months, one on nutrition and one on consumer economy. There are also shorter courses on special topics such as man and the environment, administration and also a course on the problem of nutrition in the developing countries, aimed at those who work in these countries. Scandinavian home economics educationalists who have matriculated can follow refresher courses at an academic level at the Nordic Home Economics High School. The aim here is to further and organise teaching and research in home economics on an academic level equivalent to t h a t at the universities or other institutions of higher education. In relation to this, in Norway there is a special field of nutrition studies, in Sweden textile studies and in Denmark there are plans for starting a special section of consumer economy. On completing the courses students will be known as Nordic Home Economics graduates. A t Denmark Lmrerhajskole (The Royal Danish School of Educational Studies) there are both refresher and in-service training courses. Home economics educationalists can follow studies at an academic level in nutrition and bio-chemistry leading to the degree of M . E d . Extensive research and informative educational work is being carried out by the Danish Government H o m e Economics Council which is under the Ministry of Commerce. The council consists of representatives from the central administration, home economics and women's associations. There is certainly a need for new thinking in the field of home economics teaching, bearing in mind changes occurring in the family pattern and structural changes in society, with emphasis on education and vocational training for both sexes. The aims which have been mentioned harmonise, however, very well with the more relaxed attitude towards education which can be detected throughout Europe today.

NOTE 1 The continuation school is the responsiblity of the municipality and is open to all 14-18 year olds: it offers supplementary education and leisure education, irrespective of the school which is being attended full-time, and irrespective of whether t h e pupil is working or attending another school.

WOMEN'S STUDIES IN AMERICA by MARTIN GRUBERG,University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh When I began m y research on women in politics in 1964, I found t h a t the subject was below the threshhold of visibility. Political scientists, mostly male, had tended to overlook a major group. W h a t ' s more, female scholars for the most part avoided this area (perhaps fearing being accused of special pleading or dabbling). Most textbooks about American government made no reference to female political activity, except for a few pages about suffragettes. Within the last few years, especially since 1968, the situation has changed. On the