Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. DOI 10.1007/s40899-017-0126-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Impact of artificial recharge on groundwater recharge estimated by groundwater modeling (case study: Jarmeh flood spreading, Iran) M. Chitsazan1 • L. Nozarpour2 • A. Movahedian2

Received: 27 December 2015 / Accepted: 26 April 2017 Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

Abstract The use of artificial recharge to store extra surface water underground is predicted to rise as increasing populations request more water in Khuzestan province, southwest of Iran. Groundwater storage in this part of country represents both a practical solution to the province’s additional water storage needs and a tool to help manage groundwater more sustainably. However, to justify the effectiveness and the expenses of artificial recharge projects, their impacts on aquifers should be evaluated. In almost all artificial recharge projects, project evaluation is done after its performance. However, using the capabilities of the model, it can evaluate the usefulness of the project before its performance. Therefore, the extra costs can be prevented. To demonstrate the capabilities of artificial groundwater recharge and to evaluate its impact on existing groundwater resource, a study was carried out in the Lour plain in Khuzestan and the groundwater-flow model MODFLOW was used for a quantitative assessment of Jarmeh flood spreading project. The aim of the project is to solve the water shortage in the area. A three-dimensional finite-difference approach for Jarmeh flood spreading project was implemented using the Groundwater Modeling System (GMS). Moreover, the automated parameter estimation module for MODFLOW was used to optimize parameters for best agreement between simulated and observed groundwater levels. New findings showed that Jarmeh flood spreading not only has increased groundwater & L. Nozarpour [email protected] 1

Department of Geology, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Shahid Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran

2

Young Researchers and Elite Club, Ahvaz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahvaz, Iran

level in vicinity of recharged area, but also has increased water budget of the aquifer about 1.6 million cubic meters. Keywords Flood spreading  Evaluation  Groundwater  MODFLOW  GMS

Introduction More than 90% of the land area in Iran is classified as arid or semi-arid. The mean annual precipitation of the 87 million ha of the mountainous regions and 77.8 million ha of the plains areas is 365 and 115 mm, respectively (Anon 1984). Therefore, the deficit of water resources became a big concern in the most parts of country. Particularly, southwest of country has characteristics of a dry climate with short-term high-intensive rainfall and resulting flash flood runoff often constitutes the major part of potential water inflow to agriculture and water supply. On the contrary, severe drought and over-cultivation has caused huge and destructive floods. However, if controlled, these the flash flood can be directed to the subsurface reservoirs by artificial recharge through water flood spreading basins (Kowsar 1990). The results of different studies in the field of artificial recharge of groundwater have shown that the decline in the groundwater level can be restored (Ting et al. 2002; Yang 2006). According to International Groundwater Resources Assessment Center, artificial recharge is defined as: augmenting the natural movement of surface water into underground formations by artificially changing natural conditions. Artificial recharge methods aim to improve water distribution and to supply groundwater. However, other objectives such as flood control, reduction of soil erosion, or land use change can be achieved as well via their implementation (Bouwer 1999; Todd and Mays 2005).

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Artificial recharge and rainwater harvesting in arid and semiarid areas of the world have been experienced over through a wide variety of methods and their influence has been investigated not only from physical point of view, but also from social and economic points of view (IAH 2005). As stated by Kowsar (2008): turbid floodwater should be harnessed to build soil and produce virtual water through spate irrigation, and/or it should be stored in aquifers by employing the artificial recharge of groundwater methods and used commensurate with needs. FAO (1987) has defined spate irrigation as ‘‘an ancient irrigation practice that involves the diversion of flashy spate floods running off from mountainous catchments where flood flows, usually flowing for only a few hours with appreciable discharges and with recession flows lasting for only one to a few days, are channeled through short steep canals to bounded basins, which are flooded to a certain depth’’. Therefore, spate irrigation in most of the parts of Iran purposes as the artificial recharge of groundwater as well; the only exceptions are southern Baluchestan and the Izadkhast Plain, Darab, where there is a complete absence of coarse-grained alluvium at easily reachable depths. It is, therefore, obvious that the spate irrigation-assisted artificial recharge of groundwater has been the bulwark of our civilization (Kowsar 1991; Kowsar 1999). A lot of money is spent every year in Iran to develop artificial recharge projects. Therefore, assessing the quantitative impact of these projects on aquifers possess special importance. Calculating the quantification of the water infiltrated to the subsurface aquifers can be achieved by groundwater modeling. Groundwater artificial recharge performance has been assessed through groundwater modeling by many researchers. One of the earliest work in this category belongs to Guymon and Hromadka (1985). They discussed ‘‘Modeling of groundwater response to artificial recharge’’. The result of the research clarifies that the use of available numerical models or the development of a new model requires not only a perception of physical and chemical processes related to artificial recharge and the movement of groundwater but also a true perception of its mathematics fundamental principles. To investigate the recharge value in the aquifers of semiarid areas, Enrico (2000) simulated an aquifer using MODFLOW mathematical model. He determined the right amount of the required recharge in different climatic conditions. Chenini and Ben Mamou (2010) utilized GIS and numerical modeling to identify the suitable location of artificial recharge. MODFLOW-2001 code was used to estimate the effects of recharge on piezometric behavior of hydro-geologic system and also to manage groundwater resources in the studied regional capability of MODFLOW to evaluate that the efficiency of

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artificial recharge plan was verified. Barati (1996) evaluated the artificial and natural recharges of Imamzadeh Jafar aquifer in Gachsaran using the three-dimensional mathematical model of MODFLOW. The main results of this research were the adjustment of hydro-geologic parameters and prediction of water table fluctuations with regard to artificial recharge. Fatehi (1997) evaluated artificial recharge of groundwater by floodwater spreading project in Garbayegan Plain in Fasa using the MODFLOW numerical model. It was concluded that the water table rose about 3 m near the area by spreading the floodwater. In addition, the MODFLOW predicted that even if the rate of aquifer depletion does not increase, the water table would drop. Katibeh and Hafezi (2004) investigated the groundwater consumption management and evaluated the performance of artificial recharge of Ab Barik Plain in Bam using the MODFLOW model. After simulating the aquifer, they used the constructed model for different management scenarios and evaluation of artificial recharge performance. Movahedian (2013) simulated Gotvand Plain aquifer using the MODFLOW model. Then, with the help of the constructed model and by analyzing the zone budget and effects of recharge on behavior of piezometers in the study area, he assessed the effects of ponded-water on floodwater spreading project in Abbid-Sarbishe in the north part of the plain. In the present study, GMS (groundwater modeling system) and integrated data layers in GIS (geographic information system) have been used for modeling of the Lour plain aquifer in Khuzestan Province in steady and unsteady states and it has been tried to evaluate the effects of implementing artificial recharge during water-ponding periods using the Modflow model. Geographical, geological, and hydrogeological overview Lour Plain is a part of Dezful-Andimeshk Plain with an area of about 280 km2 in the southwestern part of Iran which is located at the Dez River basin in the northern part of Andimeshk at the longitude 48°090 to 48°470 E and latitude 32°020 to 32°360 N. Its upstream watershed is one of the sub-basins of the seasonal river of Balarood which is one of the branches of the Dez River. Its average height is 477 m above the sea level, the average annual rainfall is 339.7 mm, and the average temperature is 24 °C. Its upstream watershed is one of the sub-basins of the seasonal river of Balarood which is one of the branches of the Dez River. Its average height is 477 m above the sea level, the average annual rainfall is 339.7 mm, and the average temperature is 24 °C. The volume of potential flooding in the sub basins of the region in the 25-year return period is about 2.8 million

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Fig. 1 Location of the study area in Lour Andimeshk Plain

cubic meters. Bakhtiari conglomerate has covered the whole upstream catchment of the area and its alluvial deposits have formed the downstream plain. In these areas where the slope is minimum, the soil with light texture with medium to large depth and suitable drainage is found which is potentially very good for agriculture. The required water of the region is supplied by the groundwater which has a high quality. There are several torrential water courses in the studied area, the most important of which is Jarmeh watercourse. The flood spreading project of Jarmeh was designed on this watercourse with geographical coordinates of 48°220 1200 E and 2°320 1300 N and an area of 638 hectares. The project implemented in 1996 by Khuzestan Research Center for Agriculture and Natural Resources with the purpose of flood controlling, soil protection, vegetation enhancing, and groundwater artificial recharging (Moazemi et al. 2010). Figure 1 shows the location of

the study area, and Fig. 2 shows the Jarmeh flood spreading project and surrounding piezometers. The high cost of using surface water and high evaporation due to the climatic conditions of the region and small areas of lands on the one hand, and broad alluvial plains in the region which have groundwater resources that are suitable to artificial recharge particularly by spreading floodwater on the other hand have made artificial recharge via spreading floodwater highly important in the region (Movahedian et al. 2014). Statistics and studies show that the aquifer of Andimeshk Plain which supplies drinking water and water for agriculture and industry in Andimeshk and the region has a negative balance. By constructing the station, downstream aquifer is recharged, the risk of flooding in parts of Andimeshk and eroding of the fertile soil of agricultural lands has been resolved, and by enhancing the soil moisture, the pasture cover for grazing

Fig. 2 Jarmeh Andimeshk water spreading project and surrounding piezometers

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Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Table 1 Water ponding time along with estimated volume of recharged water (Natural Resources Research Center, Khuzestan, 2013)

Recharge estimated volume (MCM)

Water ponding time (year/month)

Recharge estimated volume (MCM)

Water ponding time (year/month)

Due to drought, no water ponding

2007-2008

1.125

2001/12

0.183 ? Direct rainfall

2009/9

1.087

2003/4

0.173 ? Direct rainfall

2009/10

1.152

2003/12 2004/1

0.5 ? Direct rainfall

2009/12

3.027

0.05 ? Direct rainfall

2010/4

0.11

2004/12

0.3 ? Direct rainfall

2010/5

1.38

2006/2

0.45

2011/1

0.400

2006/12

Due to lack of rain, no water ponding

2011/11

0.875

2007/1

The model describes groundwater flow in porous media of constant density under non-equilibrium conditions in a heterogeneous and anisotropic medium according to the following equation (Bear 1979):       o oh o oh o oh oh kxx kyy kzz þ þ  w ¼ Ss ox ox oy oy oz oz ot ð1Þ

Fig. 3 View of water ponding (Natural Resources Research Center, Khuzestan, 2013)

the livestock in the region has increased. The import of water to the project area and duration of water ponding occur seasonally according to the volume of rainfall. Since the launch of the project up to now, with regard to the volume of occurred floods, several water ponding has been done and the volume of floods and ponded water has been approximately calculated based on the flood flow, level of flood mark, and also the area of distribution (Table 1). Figure 3 shows a view of water ponding.

Materials and methods Lack of sufficient data and the existing restrictions on monitoring on artificial recharge projects have favored the use of numerical modeling for quantitative evaluation of artificial recharge projects. The present research has focused on forecasting the effects of Jarmeh water flood spreading project on water budget and groundwater table using MODFLOW mathematical model in Dezful-Andimeshk plain, located in the southwest of Iran.

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where Kxx, Kyy, and Kzz are hydraulic conductivity along x, y, and z directions, respectively. H is hydraulic head, W volumetric flux per unit volume, Ss specific storage coefficient of porous medium, and t is time. Combining the initial and boundary conditions, the numeric model was constructed (Wang et al. 2008). Groundwater flow equations together with specification of the flow as well as initial head conditions at the boundaries constitute a mathematical representation of the aquifer system. Model design Model discretization The study area was discretized into 45 rows and 56 columns using geographical information system (GMS). As the cells were the same regular quadrangular, then in agreement with area of 280 km2 and considering 500 meters as cell size, the total of 2520 cells were obtained (1132 active cells and 1388 inactive cells) (Fig. 4). According to the features of the stratigraphy and pumping test analysis, the aquifer can be considered as one unconfined aquifer. Conceptual model Lour plain is an unconfined aquifer with a single layer. Dez River enters into the Lour plain from South East and exists from southern part of the region. Groundwater enters to the plain from northern and northeastern and eastern and exits from the west and southwest.

Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Fig. 4 Boundary conditions and grid constructed

Due to the nature of its lithology and fractures, Bakhtiari formation is a permeable formation and recharges the plain. Aghajari formation and Lahbry member, because of nature of their lithology, are impermeable and have a very low hydraulic conductivity. According to the log wells, geophysical and pumping tests, Lour aquifer can be considered as an unconfined aquifer, and due to its multisource nature, it has local heterogeneity. For reasons of data availability, only 12 observation wells were selected in 2009 as the initial condition to simulate the groundwater flow, because the recharge and discharge conditions of the aquifer were normal in this year. Inflow boundaries of the model include northern, northeastern, and eastern parts of the model area. Some part of western boundary act as outflow boundary of the model area (Fig. 4).

In the steady state, the flow pattern remains unchanged over time, but in unsteady state, the flow pattern is related to a particular time and changes with time. Steady-state calibration period was selected according to the Lour plain groundwater hydrograph in October 2009. Then, model was calibrated from October 2009 to September 2010 in unsteady state during 12 stress periods. The final model was verified from October 2010 to March 2010. Model calibration and verification The groundwater-flow model was calibrated by adjusting model input data and model geometry until model results matched field observations within an acceptable level of accuracy. By specifying the initial and boundary conditions of the aquifer, the model was calibrated during September 2009

Fig. 5 Different mean values of errors in each period of unsteady stress

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Results and discussion

Fig. 6 Map of observed and calculated water levels in September 2009

to August 2010 in an unsteady state during 12 stress periods. After the optimization of hydro-geologic parameters, the model was validated for the period of September 2009 to August 2010. Errors, in terms of different mean values of stress periods, are shown in Fig. 5. Figure 6 shows the map of the water table in September 2009. Good agreement of the observed and calculated water levels in piezometers and appropriate consistency of the aligned lines of groundwater indicate the acceptable simulation of Lour Plain. The root mean square (RMS) error for water-level observations for the steady-state calibration simulation is 0.354 m. The root mean square (RMS) error for water-level observations for the unsteady–state calibration simulation is 0.562 m.

The main purpose of this article is to assess the effects of artificial recharge on the water quantity and quality of the Lour plain aquifer. Thus, to assess artificial recharge, the constructed model was implemented in groundwater model with and without artificial recharge. To achieve this task, the location of Jarmeh flood spreading project was specified using satellite images in GIS environment and was defined as recharge coverage in the model. As the artificial recharge project had some water ponding (refilled) in 2009–2010 (modeling time), the model calibrated model inherently was affected by artificial recharge and was calibrated for such conditions. Therefore, the calibrated model was considered as ‘‘model with the artificial recharge’’. On the other hand, to eliminate the effect of artificial recharge (to view the case without artificial recharge), the amounts of water ponding performed in 2009–2010 (modeling time) were entered to the calibrated model with negative signs and the model was run using the data of water ponding (Table 1). The later model was considered as one ‘‘without artificial recharge’’. Then, the calculated amounts of water level of piezometers around the project were compared in both models. Table 1 water ponding time along with estimated volume of recharged water (Natural Resources Research Center, Khuzestan).

Impact of artificial recharge operation on waterlevel in piezometers

Groundwater artificial recharge The project site has been supported by Natural Resources Research Center of Khuzestan. Therefore, it was implemented to manage aquifer and watershed plans and to recharge groundwater resources in 1996. After the calibration and verification and ensuring the ability of the model to simulate the actual conditions of the aquifer, it was used as a management tool and assessed the Jarmeh artificial recharge project. For this purpose, the region of artificial recharge was defined in the model as a polygon using the recharge package. To perform this, after defining the area of Jarmeh artificial recharge in the model, according to the performed water ponding, the model was implemented with and without artificial recharge and the results, including water-level fluctuations and water balance changes around the artificial recharge, were compared. Moreover, for further investigation of the effect of artificial recharge on the aquifer, the data of observed water level in piezometers around the artificial site and also the quality parameters such as EC and chlorine of the surrounding wells were compared.

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The project site has been implemented by the Natural Resources Research Center of Khuzestan with 638 hectares in 1996. The input water to the project area is seasonal and water ponding to occur according to the volume of rainfall. The region of artificial recharges/recharged was defined in the model as a polygon using the recharge package in the GMS software. The recharging has been done about 2 mm3 in this polygon based on the water ponding (Table 1) in model year. As it is expected, water level in piezometers has increased due to the artificial recharge operation. The difference between the two cases is basically due to the increase of water table due to water ponding during artificial recharge. To calculate the increase, the computational water levels of piezometers around the project in both models (with and without recharge) were subtracted and the difference was calculated. Among the neighboring piezometers, AN40, AN38, and AN35 were dry in 2009–2010 and only AN39 and AN2 were active. AN39 is located downstream of the project and AN2 is upstream (Fig. 2). Therefore, as expected, there was no rise in AN2.

Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Table 2 Rise of the water table in piezometer AN39 during 2009–2010

Time

Water level of An39 with artificial recharge (m)

Water level of An39 without artificial recharge (m)

Difference between the two states [the rise of the water level due to recharge (m)]

30

103.4891

103.4891

0

60

103.6011

103.6011

0.0001

90

103.8149

103.8148

0.0001

120

104.0457

104.0455

0.0002

150

104.2224

104.222

0.0004

179

104.3429

104.3422

0.0007

210 241

104.1329 103.4043

104.1319 103.4027

0.001 0.0016

272

102.8267

102.8246

0.0021

303

102.6496

102.6468

0.0028

334

102.5049

102.5013

0.0036

365

102.1941

102.1896

0.0045

Table 2 shows the rise of the water table in AN39 during 2009–2010 water ponding. Table 2 shows the rise of the water levels in piezometer AN39 during 2009–2010. Last right column shows the rate of water-level rises in piezometer AN39 in all stress periods due to the artificial recharge with maximum value of about 4.5 cm. Groundwater artificial-recharge accounting The positive increase of water balance in the study area is another result of the artificial recharge. Detailed comparison of water balance in the artificial recharge site was examined by zone budget package of the GMS software.

According to hydraulic conductivity zoning of the calibrated model, the studied area was divided into nine balance zones (Fig. 7). Jarmeh floodwater spreading site is placed in zone 6. Accordingly, the detailed water balance was calculated in zone 6. Analysis of the model balance with and without artificial recharge shows that even though the rise of water table level due to artificial recharge operation in 2009–2010 is not significant, the recharge has improved the aquifer water balance (Table 3). The plain groundwater unit hydrograph had a positive an ascending trend in the modeling year (Nozarpour 2014). The results indicate that even though Jarmeh floodwater spreading project has not created a large rise in the water level of piezometers, it has

Fig. 7 Zone budget generated in the study area

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Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Table 3 Lour aquifer water balance, with and without artificial recharge scenarios

Balance components

Volume (m3)

Inflow

Without artificial recharge

With artificial recharge

Well

12573535

12573535

River leakage

28807464

28807406

Head dep bounds

8296544

8200503

Recharge

15200976

15670122

Total in

64878519

65251566

52148476

52148476

Outflow Well River leakage Head dep bounds Recharge Total out Balance (m3)

8052812

8052818

12440865

12507102

1302556.125 73944709.13 -9066190

– 72708396 -7456830

Fig. 8 Detailed comparison of water balance around the project area, with and without artificial recharge

been able to increase the water balance of the area about 1.6 million cubic meters. Moreover, inflow from the model boundary has been decreased due to artificial recharge which can be resulted from the creation of a temporary hydraulic barrier (dome of recharge). Comparison of the balance of each stress period in this area in the ‘‘with and without’ artificial recharge scenarios shows that due to water ponding in 2009–2010, the balance has increased maximally during the recharge up to about ?7200 m3, while at the same time without artificial recharge, the balance should be about -6600 m3 (Fig. 8). Another explanation for insignificance rise of water level in the piezometers is related to the high hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer adjacent to artificial recharge site. In another word, the recharged water from artificial recharge operation does not stay in the project area for a long time, and after a short period of time moves downstream.

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Qualitative change of aquifer water quality due to artificial recharge operation The effect of the artificial recharge project was assessed qualitatively. To achieve this task, the selective water quality parameters of Lour Plain sample DK, GHL1, and GHL4 which are surrounding the area of artificial recharge site acquired from Khuzestan Water and Power Organization were used. The sampling stations of DK, GHL1, and GHL4 which are surrounding the area of artificial recharge site received more attention for this purpose (Fig. 9). In this regard, the chemographs of EC (electrical conductivity) and Cl concentration in the wells together with the applied water ponding were drawn and reviewed. Figures 10 and 11, respectively, show the chemograph of electric conductivity (EC) and chlorine concentration in DK, GHL1, and GHL4 wells along with the volume and the time of water ponding of floodwater spreading. Variation of EC and chloride concentration in the wells follows

Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Fig. 9 Location quality sampling stations Lour plain

Fig. 10 EC kymograph in DK, GHL1, and GHL4 wells

Fig. 11 CL chemograph in well number DK, GHL1, and GHL4

nearly similar trend and fluctuations in the area. The rate of these parameters in the above wells is not very high, and in general, the quality of groundwater in this area is good. If

quality of source water (artificial recharge) differs from water quality of aquifer, quality of mixed water either become better or worse.

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Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. Fig. 12 EC chemograph of Lour Plain Andimeshk aquifer from 2006 to 2013

Flood water drained from Bakhtiari formation and groundwater in the study area both have a good quality. Thus, the mixture of two kinds of water will not bring about certain changes. As it is observed, changes in EC and chloride concentration do not show any specific influence of water ponding and there is not a significant correlation between the increase and the decrease of these parameters after water ponding. According to the diagrams, it seems like that factors such as natural recharge and agricultural effects affect the quality of water in the area more than water ponding of floodwater spreading and the effect of recharge cannot be traced in this way. In addition to the chemographs of these three stations, Theissen polygon was prepared for the EC values of all sampling stations. After calculating the area of each Theissen polygon, the weighted average of electric conductivity (EC) variations was calculated for all months and the EC chemograph was drawn for the aquifer of Lour Plain since 2006–2013 (Fig. 12). EC chemograph represents the average changes in electric conductivity of aquifer. As it is observed in the figure, EC fluctuations at different periods is not associated with water ponding of artificial recharge which is due to the small volume of recharge compared to the whole vastness of the plain.

Conclusions The studied area of Lour Plain includes the tertiary and quaternary sediments. The main part of the area is composed of Bakhtiari conglomerate formation and the rest of the area consists of mainly alluvial and young quaternary sediments and a limited area consists of Lahbary member. Bakhtiari conglomerate has the utmost outcrop in the study area, and because of its sufficient permeability and porosity, it is the main formation in the study area that is effective in the formation or recharge of the aquifers. Jarmeh floodwater spreading area is in an alluvial fan environment at the foot of the mountains of Bakhtiari

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conglomerate. The groundwater model of Lour Plain aquifer was prepared using Modflow code and was applied as a management tool for the evaluation of Jarmeh artificial recharge. The effects of Jarmeh water flood spreading project on water budget and groundwater were assessed using MODFLOW mathematical model in the lour plain, located in the southwest of Iran. The outflows of the model showed that artificial recharge is the most effective at downstream of piezometer AN39. The reason is that piezometer AN39 is located in the main path of groundwater flow. In addition, it is the nearest piezometer at downstream of the flood spreading area, so this flood spreading has the greatest influence in this region. After calculating all water rises in this piezometer, it is found that the highest rise in 2009–2010 (about 0.45 cm) is related to the last stress. In addition to the increase of water table, the positive increase of balance like the rise of water level results from the artificial recharge, the model showed via the zone budget package that artificial recharge project has been able to improve the aquifer water balance. Due to good permeability of the plain sediments, the floodwater spreading did not make a considerable rise in the water table and mainly caused the positive balance of the aquifer. The project water ponding in 2009–2010 increased the water balance up to about 1.6 mm3. The comparison of area of water balance both with and without artificial recharge showed that due to water ponding in 2009–2010, the water balance increased up to about ?7200 m3 maximally during the recharge. To investigate the effect of water ponding of Jarmeh, floodwater spreading project on the quality of groundwater and the chemograph of EC and chloride concentration in well number DK, GHL1, and GHL4 which are close to the project area were drawn. The results showed that there is no effective relationship between water quality and artificial recharge operation, because: (1) the artificial recharge project is placed in the vicinity of Bakhtiari conglomerate; (2) this formation expands in the catchment area and has no reaction with the imported water; and (3) local

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groundwater also has a good water quality. Thus, no significant changes in water quality are observed with respect to the artificial recharge operation. This study shows that short time impact of artificial recharge on local groundwater resource that is usually not possible by conventional methods could be assessed by groundwater modeling.

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