Front. Lit. Stud. China 2010, 4(2): 253–282 DOI 10.1007/s11702-010-0012-y

RESEARCH ARTICLE

WU Jun

Literary Criticism, Public Space, and Social Justice © Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag 2010

Abstract Taking the profound impacts of generalized system, new electronic media, and subculture into consideration, this paper holds that, presently China has entered an era of comprehensive social transition, along with the tendency that the era of the former unified or centralized literature (criticism) values will come to an end. For this reason, literary criticism will probably go into public space in a generalized form. The formation and bearing of public reason and social justice or moral law should become the conscious duty of current literary criticism. This article, whose textbook cases arise, in the main, out of Renmin wenxue put out from 1949 to 1976, states how the accredited commission to write on the given topics in the general sense has acquired the special status of political culture, and therefore assumed the specially-designated significance, function and value in the literary institution of modern China. And organizing manuscripts not only occupies a direct role in being involved in the creation of literature, but also makes a subtly different history of literature that gives a reflection of the politically motivating force for the authorized literary compositions. Keywords literary criticism, public space, public reason, social justice organizing manuscripts, cost

Direction of Literary Criticism in the Era of Transition The so-called transitional era mainly refers to the period of social change or transformation that has taken place and taken shape as a whole starting from 1990s when China consciously incorporated itself into the historical development Translated from Wenyi yanjiu 文艺研究 (Literature and Art Studies), 2008, (2): 16–20 by ZHANG Ruogu WU Jun ( ) Research Centre of Modern Chinese Literature, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China E-mail: [email protected]

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process. Of course, we can understand, recognize or judge the cause, feature, or trend of such an era from different perspectives or at all levels, according to our specific objectives. However, I mainly talk about following three aspects: First, the institutional change of the system. Speaking of system, we do not refer to political system, but rather, the general system in the sense of sociology. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the general system has to do with political system, but the subtlety lies in the fact that when general system is constrained by political system, it also interacts with political system. As to the “institutional change” of system, that means, spatially, the change is partial and limited, and temporally, it is gradual and slow, far from integral, complete, or drastic, abrupt change. Therefore, I view the institutional change of the system positively, considering it as the institutional establishment or formation of multiple institutional factors or forms within the current China. Institutional construction has become a key feature of China’s present social and political development. And the other way round, we can also view the same phenomenon passively. That is, apparently, the former (old) system concept and theory can to explain or cope with present situation of China; in other words, the politics related to system has changed or is changing, and the constancy of the system in the general sense is actually being impacted or challenged. The breaking and building at system level (its process in particular) will always be its usual status. Second, the proliferation of new electronic media represented mainly by computer network in day-to-day activities has brought about enormous changes to culture and civilization. I believe that, in theory, we haven’t fully realized the thorough revolutionary role of computer network in changing human culture and civilization level, since it, as an instrument, has increasingly become the major or hallmark instrument of human being: when the leading embodiment of productive force development level—the instrument (that is, computer network)—has made revolutionary change or progress, the relations of production or civilization level will undergo substantial change accordingly. That is to say, what computer network has changed is not only cultural approach or shape of culture, but more importantly, the approach, level or stage of civilization; and the later is the most substantial change. This change will re-define our culture or ideology—undoubtedly, including our literature and values and standards thereof. Third, the emergence of social sub-cultural thoughts and thereof forms has widespread and profound impacts on overall cultural structure of the society of its development. In general, the actual influence of the balance of forces between the so-called mainstay culture and sub-culture is hard to judge clearly within a given time or space (such as cultural groups relatively identified by age, sex, region, belief, and so on), and sometimes well opposite to the common sense and usual concepts. In other words, in a specific time and space or cultural group, the

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actual right status of sub-cultural values may well take precedence over mainstream cultural values. Then, what is mainstream culture or sub-culture? This is actually difficult question that can not be clearly replied, when the actual right status of mainstream culture or subculture may have changes or be upside down in the social circumstances. For example, the comparison of cultural status or influence between paper media and network media; teenager and youth culture, female culture, white collar culture, coterie or trade culture, minority culture, folk religious culture, non-government organization culture, homosexual or bisexual culture, and so on. None of these “sub-culture” that can be marked off by different standards will passively or submissively accept the control of mainstream culture. Sub-culture has its own world, where it acts as the mainstream culture. Consequently, within a given specific time and space, or culture group, the right status relation of mainstream culture or subculture may well be changed, and it is true with the actual boundary of culture type. In my point of view, all these changes, which mainly find expressions in the changes of system, instrument, and cultural right status, are the principle mark of China’s social transition (or change, or transformation) and development in our era—since 1990s. In that case, as for literature or literary criticism in the midst of these changes, I want to say that the era has come to an end when the culture in which unified or unitary literary values (including literary criticism values) are formed based on tradition or existing value stance. In particular, the classical tradition of literature is approaching disintegration or collapse. Moreover, the boundary of literature forms has already started the process of dissipation or disappearance before this. Accordingly, the literature ecological pattern of multidimensional and plural values has gradually become a prevalent reality, and discrepancy in literature value orientation of professional concept (specialized or finesorted) has gained full rationality or validity, that is, the existence or the right of literature has entered a relatively free period of value game. And so literary criticism has gone to or has appeared different directions—no longer stay in the same way. This probably forebodes a new literature era, but presently, I would rather consider it as a tendency era when the long-existing literature is in the process of termination. Why? The biggest reason is, we have not yet been able to name the so-called new literary times in theory, and what we can do, is doing, or have done, is to define or judge a new (literary) value with the aid of traditional (literary) theories, concepts and thinking in particular, at the most. An obvious example is that, during the period from the middle of 1990s to the beginning of the new century, the so-called cross-style writing was once an important term or concept of literary criticism to label a new kind, or type of literary creation style combining the factors and features of different traditional styles. For example, what is the style of Hint of Han Shaogong? Obviously, the problem is, when we use the literary criticism term or concept of cross-style writing, we are still

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basing our theory on the concept of traditional style, trying to pour the new wine into an old bottle. That is, we are trying to explain a new fact by resorting to old concepts and old categories. Our theoretical premises of literary criticism have not been changed consciously or effectively, and we have not yet fully realized that the old concepts or theories are no longer able to cope with new literary facts. When such a literary criticism speaks so plausibly, the request for re-constructing the theory basis of literary criticism has actually been ignored. In reality, we have not yet had sufficient theoretical preparation and corresponding ability, and we have not yet able to usher in a new era. More often, what we can do is to look back. We gain the confidence and motivation to go forward from looking back. This is also the time when literary criticism will face a real test. The termination of the era of unified or uniform literary criticism, and the disputes of literary criticism, are basically two complementary ways referring to the same phenomenon or characteristics of times. There is another more generalized term, “post-modernism.” That is to say, with the coming of post-modernism context and post-modernism society, our literary criticism will need (or have entered) the post-modernism. But I am not bold enough use the word yet, for I am afraid of getting entangled with some theoretical argument requiring accurate demonstration because of this. The macroscopic idea I have as to the present literary criticism is that the present literary criticism and thereof issues have now basically presented a sort of diffused or ruptured situation. In comparison with the era of central values, the present literary criticism is apparently dispersed, and is further and further away from the “past” (ideology)—not only in terms of form, but also in terms of values. In an extreme sense, literary criticism (including generalized arts ideology) is becoming an extremely relative issue, even difficult or impossible for dialogue or discussion. If I may be so bold, I would say that this is the basic trait of post-modernism literary criticism.

The Historical Background against Which a Full Interpretation Is Put on Organizing Manuscripts During the period from 1951 to 1952, a rectification campaign was mounted on a vast scale in the literary and art circles of the newly-founded Republic of China in the immediate political environment in which a mass movement was set up to remold the ideology of the intelligentsia and to level strident criticism at the homemade feature film Wu Xun zhuan 武训传 (The biography of Wu Xun). The movement brought about the abject failure that had been courted for the first time in the magazine Renmin wenxue 人民文学 (The people’s literature) known then as the national literary journal since it started publication. Ai Qing 艾青, the

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leading cadre of the magazine, was turned out of office as the Deputy Editor because he “ought to assume the major responsibility for the mistakes and shortcomings exposed in the editorship of Renmin wenxue.” Ding Ling 丁玲, the then Chief Editor of the newspaper Wenyibao 文艺报 (Art & literature), was transferred to take up the post.1 On November 24, 1951, Just before Ding Ling took over the magazine from the predecessor, namely during the initial stage of the rectification campaign in the world of literature and art, a vital assembly was held in Peking to carry out a full mobilization for the organization of the rectification campaign in the literary and art circle, in which Ding Ling followed closely Hu Qiaomu 胡乔木 and Zhou Yang 周扬 in order of the speeches on the agenda, and also reeled off a major address entitled “Wei tigao women kanwu de sixiangxing, zhandouxing er douzheng” 为提高我们刊物的思想性、战斗性而斗争 (Take up a political struggle to complete the ideological level and fighting capacity of our publications).2 In the closing speech she pointed out, It can entirely be practical to commission the production of literary works and to carry out the literary criticism. In the past we used to give authors the commissions to write on some authorized themes, but there were not the best-laid plans squarely aimed at such commissioned articles from lack of sufficient clarity of the guiding principles. Judging by our experience it is a reasonable certainty that the articles popular with the masses are those that are successfully commissioned, on which relatively more and positive reflections are possible to be sought. Whether or not the creation of literary works can be successfully commissioned depends on the real initiative that the editorial staff can display in their work. The open forum should often take place in the editorial department on some works and some problems, and the editorial staff should organize the collection of and pursue the investigation into the problems that remain, on which the material should be offered to the authors; the editorial staff should come to their help with their literary compositions when they go to the countryside, factories, and troops to observe and learn from real life. The editorial staff is not the producer who is concerned merely 1

Wu Jun, 2006. The quotation is taken from “Wenyi zhengfeng xuexi he women de bianji gongzuo” 文艺整风学习和我们的编辑工作 (The rectification in art and literature and our editorship) published in the February issue of Renmin wenxue, 1952, to which the signature of the Editorial Department is put, the article directs self-criticism against the mistakes committed by the Editorial Department of Renmin wenxue. 2 For the campaign speech delivered by Hu Qiaomu, Zhou Yan and Ding Ling in the mobilization meeting, see the January issue of Renmin wenxue in 1952, upon which the address is based, given by Ding Ling and quoted in the part that follows. Then there will be no explanatory notes given separately for the same content.

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with their own writings, but the organizer. Only when they swings into action and racks their brains, can the authors follow suit by being spurred into action, the problems be found persisting to this day, and hence can the commissioned articles increase in number. Only when there are a growing number of the commissioned contributions, can the agile and lively minds be cultivated in our discussions, and then can it be of real significance to edit the publications. The editorial staff never suffers from the anxiety over the lack of contributions, but they should be filled with the fear fuelled by their political inertia through which they do not take the initiative. In this passage given by Ding Ling great stress is placed on the matter of the accredited commission to write on the given topics as well as its significance. Organizing manuscripts is the major professional work for the editorial department of the publications, which was alternatively termed at that time as one piece of the work characterized by zuzhi 组织.3 And the term has just frequently been accentuated as the key word and core concept in this passage by Ding Ling. In the public speeches delivered in the mobilization meeting both Hu Qiaomu and Zhou Yang expressed the immediate thoughts4 on the supreme importance that lies in the literary institutions and the commissions of literary compositions. Make a trifle fine discrimination, and we will learn that the Chinese term zuzhi can both be used as a noun and verb. Within the scope defined in this article as well as in the current situations of the Chinese literature, zuzhi (the literary institutions) as a noun phrase can be considered as the design of the literary system, whereas zuzhi (to commission the literary compositions on the given topics) as a verbal phrase can be understood to be the tactics and means for the literature. As a technical term on the specially designated occasions, organizing manuscripts takes on by implication, as zuzhi does, many hidden pragmatics meanings and functions that are not grouped under the research field 3

This term means the politically institutionalized pattern for the production of literary compositions. 4 The close relation between zuzhi and literature and a heavy emphasis on its importance has been laid in the left-wing theories in Chinese literature, in the literature of the new Republic, and in the public speeches and specific instructions given by the Chinese Communist leaders at different levels on numerous occasions and in different times, as is much more than those given by Hu, Zhou, and Ding, briefly cited in this article. However, it would be comparatively appropriate and explanatory to cite the address by Ding Ling because she is the person concerned in this connection that this article details, who took up the post of the then Deputy Editor of Renmin wenxue, and the background against which her address was delivered is within the scope of the discussions here. A passing mention is made by the way, where the term discipline, in relation to the concept of zuzhi, was highlighted with frequency in the speeches delivered by Hu, Zhou, and Ding, which refers to the discipline in literature, the writings, and the authors’ conduct, etc.

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of literature, when it comes to its day-to-day operation in practice, and in particular to the literary activities undertaken during the Seventeen Years and in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. And in brief the accredited commission to write on the authorized subject is in literature the professional work that is institutionalized and characterized by the literary system under domination of the power that is wielded in the specially designated political culture. It is of utmost importance to the major institutions, organizational construction and effective operation of Chinese literature, and is of overriding importance to such central problems as the utilization of resources, socio-political status, categorization of value, and destiny of the times, etc. in Chinese literature. In terms of such persons or organizations that gives authors the accredited commission to write, as the publications, editors, etc., success or failure hinges usually on one single action since it would adversely affect their immediate interests. And therefore to execute the accredited commission has to lodge itself in the full consciousness, to serve its definite purpose, to reflect its detailed planned nature, and to require placing particular stress on the tactics. And in particular it not only owes the literary obligation, but also assumes the literary responsibility, and this determines that it must gain access to, insert infiltration into, join in participation in, and even exert its influence and control over, and achieve its domination over each of the links and the whole process for the literary compositions, which of course includes such intended outcomes as the links in the chain to revise and finalize the manuscripts, and to publish or bring them out. Like the planned economy under the planning system, literature is eventually incorporated into the system of the planned literature. And the specific programs of literature are to be planned and drawn up according to the guiding principles and party policies on the planned literature. Then to commission the contributions on the given topics means the practical implementation of the programs of literature; in other words, the accredited commission to compose is intended to embark on the programs of literature in concrete terms. In this sense the accredited commission means the invisible forces for the creation of the contemporary Chinese literature, so to speak, which refers specifically to the literature created during the Seventeen Years in this article, which includes the literature composed during the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. As a form, or means or mechanism for the manipulation or operation, which was institutionalized and characterized by the literary system, the accredited commission takes an all-round part in and creates a massive impact on the development process and the course of history of the contemporary Chinese literature. Supposing that there is the history of the accredited commission to write on the given topics in the contemporary Chinese literature, I

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believe it virtually to be a refreshingly different history5 of the contemporary Chinese literature. Since Renmin wenxue is designed in the form that is institutionalized and characterized by the literary system, with the stipulation that it is the national literary journal for the newly-founded Republic, the accredited commission that it executes, or its relationship with the accredited commission, has to show the reflection with full consciousness and to issue the multiple appeals, which are far more extensive and profound than those of the other literary publications in terms of the fashion, motivation, and effect. It is impossible only for its own interests to be imprinted on its mind; instead, it should be lodged in its public consciousness that the obligation, responsibility and mission must be undertaken to remold the literature for the newly-founded PRC. And therefore its accredited commissions both pertain to the strategic aims and forms in which the deep solicitude is exhibited in literature, as is specially designated for the publication, and provide a direct reflection on the orientation of the literary values and, as the alternating barometer, the macroscopic trend followed in the contemporary Chinese literature. To sum up, it gives by setting an example the artistic expression to the imagination, design and practice for the guojia wenxue of the newly founded Republic.

Organizing Manuscripts Achieves Expression in the Competition for the Supreme Authority and the Political Resources in Literature As far as the accredited commissions are concerned, that Renmin wenxue is oriented towards the national journal enables itself by nature to have acquired unique status to its best advantage, which is particularly favored by chance, wherein the cast-iron guarantee is given of the rights of choices of and access to the optimum literary resources. Likewise, nearly all the authors would swell with pride once their articles could take up a tiny space in Renmin wenxue, which not 5 On the level of the state institutions and ideology, the detailed exploration and proper understanding can be developed about the (literary history of) the accredited commissions to write on given topics in terms of the general concept of and theoretical framework for the so-called guojia wenxue. What is known as guojia wenxue is, in brief, the literature that falls under the complete domination of the state power that includes the institutions and ideology, and accordingly it becomes a form in political consciousness or a normal manner in which the state power achieves expression. It is self-evident that guojia wenxue is sure to become a reality of literature, and such literature is bound to be guojia wenxue, when the state power assumes complete control over all the literary resources, the critical evaluations or criteria, and the supreme or even the sole power over the literary possibility. And the present author will write a separate article to discuss this idea specially.

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only confers upon the author the high honor in literature, but also keeps up by implication some certain political commentary. And this displays the most extreme sensitivity in particular in the contemporary era when the Chinese writers are powerless to hold their fate in their hands in the unpredictable political situations. And hence in the ordinary course of events the manifold guarantee is provided for the status of Renmin wenxue as well as for its accredited commissions to write on the authorized themes under the concrete circumstances surrounding the guojia wenxue system. However, this does not mean that the accredited commissions to write seem to be executed in a totally relaxed manner or of lesser importance to Renmin wenxue. The real-life situations are encountered contrary to expectations. It is just because of the intrinsically superior status of Renmin wenxue beyond compare that its mission and responsibility are too extremely heavy to be undertaken for the other literary publications, and accordingly its accredited commissions would be particularly toughest contrary to popular belief. It has to vie with the other publications for the access to the resources, so as to retain its images and defend its rights. The catastrophic consequences would arise from the failure in the competition where fine works are first published by other swift-footed magazines before it, and from the poor or even indiscriminate utilization of the resources in which the publication of some problem works might be a case in point. Such dire consequences would not only cause the journal to be embroiled in the major scandals, but even lead to the acute crisis over the evaluation of the journal in politics. The experiences are fraught with such disgrace, which are often undergone in Renmin wenxue. The accredited commission is likewise of vital importance to Renmin wenxue, to sum up in a word, by comparison with that of others. Its absolute superiority must be confirmed over its rivals, which demonstrates its considerable intelligence, so that firm assurances could be obtained about the optimum interests of the journal. In the accredited commissions the competition for the resources and the portion of the rights, and even the enjoyment of the exclusive rights, receive above all expression in the rivalry for the political resources and for the supreme power. In this respect as the national journal, Renmin wenxue gains the political advantage offered by its naturally superior status in the highest capacity in literature, but what counts or is of major importance is still the acute consciousness raised and the political sophistication displayed in the journal in this connection. In the accredited commissions that passed into history, it is not only a few of such occasions that some extraordinary feats are brought off successfully, one of which is successfully epitomized by the commission accepted by Mao Zedong. As the head of China, Mao Zedong is also a poet and man of letters. For such

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journal as Renmin wenxue this is really a stroke of good fortune, because it is perhaps only such journals that command the publication of the works by such an author in the matchless capacity, and dare to intend him to be commissioned as the object of attention, as Renmin wenxue and others like Shikan 诗刊 (Poetical periodical). The successful commission accepted by the Chairman exhibits beyond any doubt the most brilliant deed and greatest success that are achieved in the rivalry for the political resources in literature and for the supreme power in the journal. The most extraordinary feat is commenced towards the end of 1950s, and accomplished with immense satisfaction in the beginning of 1960s, which is steeped in the past of Renmin wenxue. In 1958 when Zhang Tianyi 张天翼 and Chen Baichen 陈白尘 were placed in charge of Renmin wenxue respectively as the Chief and Deputy Editor, by hearsay they learned that Deng Tuo 邓拓 had collected many unpublished pieces of poetry by Mao Zedong, which were preserved during the years when he formed literary friendship with Mao Zedong while staying in office as the Editor in Chief of Renmin ribao 人民日报 (The people’s daily). Then in consultation with Deng Tuo they put in a request that the masterpiece by the Chairman be exhibited with reverence to them. They add up to more than ten pieces of poetry. Deng Tuo said that it would be entirely appropriate for them to submit the poems formally to the author himself for his own examination and approval, if they were to come out in Renmin wenxue. At that time Shen Congwen’s 沈从文 wife Zhang Zhaohe 张兆和 acted as a editor in Renmin wenxue, whose regular script in small size has always had favorable comment. She was asked to make a careful and neat handwritten copy of them, which was submitted formally to the Chairman to require his authorization for their publication in Renmin wenxue, together with a letter by the Chief Editor on behalf of the Editorial Department to ask for specific instructions and to give him the commission. A prolonged process took place for the commission while four years passed in a flash. On the eve of May Day in 1962 all of a sudden the two Chief Editors received the autograph letter by the Chairman, with the revised version of the six pieces of ci 词 (a genre of Chinese poetry), who said, They were chanted in the saddle on the march during the time from 1929 to 1931, which have totally faded into obscurity. They are gathered by the comrades from the Editorial Department of Renmin wenxue, and sent to me to ask that they be published. And therefore at their request they are contributed to you after a few modifications are carried out. That was how it was. Mao’s Ci liushou 词六首 (Six pieces of ci) were first put

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out in the May issue of Renmin wenxue in 1962.6 The success in commissioning the Chairman this time lies in the mutual cooperation between Renmin wenxue that executed the commission and the author Mao Zedong, whose activities are both particularly noteworthy. On the part of the former obviously this is an active commission that yields a penetrating insight and takes the initiatives, and makes full use of the valid resources, namely Deng Tuo, to give the commission. The successful commissions do not dispense with a single one of the two conditions in such types of cases. In this connection, it is not so much the literary motives as the political sophistication in the main, upon which true reflection is provided in Renmin wenxue. The political resources in literature and the political powers represented in them have been utilized and approached in the competition when the accredited commissions are given to tap the literary resources, whose enormous significance could not be obviously heightened in summary in virtue of literature. What attracts us is that the manner gives much food for thought, in which the latter, namely Chairman Mao, makes a reply to the request for the commission. Firstly, it is not until four years later that Mao agreed to the particular request for the commission and publication; Secondly, it is from more than ten pieces of poetry that Mao selected only six for publication; Thirdly, it is such revisions that Mao conducted to the six pieces of ci, as the change in Cai sangzi 采桑子 (The ci tune, song about plucking mulberry) from the original sentence, “Let not sorrow be shared at viewing chrysanthemum” (但 看黄花不用伤) to a revised one “Especially fragrant is the chrysanthemum with which the battlefield is blanketed” (战地黄花分外香), and the change in Jianzi 6

The above historical data about the publication of Ci liushou and the accredited commission given to Mao Zedong is based upon the synthesis of Tu Guangqun 涂光群 and Zhou Ming 周 明, the then editor of Renmin wenxue. The article “Mao Zedong Ci liushou fabiao neimu” 毛泽 东词六首发表内幕 (The inside story about the publication of “Six pieces of ci” by Mao Zedong) is included in Tu Guanqun, 2005, vol. 1. And the article “Mao Zedong yu Renmin wenxue” 毛 泽东与《人民文学》 (Mao Zedong and Renmin wenxue) written by Zhou Ming is included in Zhou Ming, 1999. A point of meticulous detail is provided in the latter about the commission in 1958, where the formal reply was not elicited from the Chairman to the instruction on the commission given by Renmin wenxue, until the beginning of 1962 when a special request was again submitted to Mao, which ended in the phenomenal success of the glorious commission. A special mention is deserved here about the reply from the Chairman. From 1949 when Renmin wenxue started publication to 1966 when it ceased publication the title on the front cover is in the original handwriting autographed by Guo Moruo 郭沫若 at the suggestion of the Chairman. And from 1976 when Renmin wenxue resumed publication to the present time the title has been autographed by the Chairman for a change, which is the reproduction from the original handwriting in his reply sent back in 1962 to the Editorial Department of Renmin wenxue. And the formal approval was granted by the Chairman himself for the request so that his autograph was carried in the journal.

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mulanhua 减字木兰花 (The ci tune, lily magnolia through the reduction in number of the characters in some certain lines) from the original sentence, “Through the deep snow the march advances on the land without bluish green cypress” (雪里行军无翠柏) to the revised one7, “Through the deep snow the severe march puts the soldiers in a pressing mood” (雪里行军情更迫). Fourthly, it is the autograph letter that Mao drafted in reply as the foreword to the Ciliushou to be published, which both states the fact of the compositions and revisions, and points out the request for the commission given by Renmin wenxue, so as to explain the whole original story. To judge from the above aspects, a reasonable inference can be drawn with utmost degree of certainty at least, where Mao treats with the utmost seriousness the request for the commission given by Renmin wenxue. To view the matter by extension, his treatment implies that the Chairman takes a distinctly positive attitude towards both the political and literary status of Renmin wenxue, and a highly favorable attitude towards the journal. The unspoken political implication conveyed in the accredited commission this time takes on the wider significance for Renmin wenxue in the normal course of events, which produces the conclusive proof of the enjoyment of the greatest rights in the sense of literary politics, and of the support solicited by the journal, which arises from both the political and literary resources rich in the most dominant and supreme values. And in the meantime it gives again the legitimate confirmation, in fact, of the supreme status that the journal has acquired for itself. The accredited commission is usually to centre on the competition for the literary and political power, whose motive and purpose are, more often than not, oriented towards rights. It is mostly characterized by the hankering after power, and is sometimes affected by the fear of power, which raises the full consciousness of the driving force behind the accredited commission. And the privileged status of Renmin wenxue enables it to build up its full confidence and harbor its wild ambition, so much so that its accredited commissions can be orientated towards the supreme power. And this is one of most profound and striking features that characterize the so-called accredited commissions executed in the contemporary Chinese literature or guojia wenxue.

Organizing Manuscripts Is Identified with the Political Barometer in Literature, or With the Perfection of the Literary Landscape It would be the decisively ultimate goal and highest honor for the accredited 7

“Mao Zedong Ci liushou fabiao neimu”, in Tu Guanqun, 2005.

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commission to write on given topics in the modern Chinese literature, so to speak, to acquire the political and literary resources rich in the most dominant and supreme values, and to drum up the support, in virtue of the accredited commission, so as to manifest or insure the supreme literary and political rights that are retained by the person or organization that commissions, usually the journals, sometimes the editors themselves. However, even for such journals as Renmin wenxue that has enjoyed the privileged status, after all it would be possible to await the chance by accident, but not by means of quest for it to pull off the brilliant feat, whose accomplishment depends on both the performance of wisdom and the particular favor bestowed by chance. The reason why the brilliant feat is classic is because it is incomparable in its significance and value on the one hand, and it also means that it is impossible to exist as normality on the other hand. Of course classic commissions are absolutely indispensable to be executed, but obviously they are not bound to be accepted. Such brilliant feat is achieved due to a combination of circumstances, which sometimes looks even merely like an extraordinary coincidence.8 Deciphered from the political aspect, in the established normality, or its professional vocational responsibility and mission, of the accredited commissions that are part of the guojia wenxue system, the adequate reflections are, in the main, given upon the portrayal and guidance, which include commentaries,9 on the form and development that are taken in Literature of the New China, or the People’s Literature, Socialist Literature, Revolutionary Literature, Literature for Workers, Peasants and Soldiers, Literature of the Working Class, Proletarian Literature, etc. It is self-evident that it is Renmin wenxue that should face up to the gravest and most remarkable responsibility for such business as usual, of all the literary magazines. To bear the brunt of such conventional normalcy it is in the ordinary course of events that the accredited commissions executed by Renmin wenxue is identified with the vacillating barometer of the political situation that arises from the contemporary Chinese literature, which put in the realistic portrayal of the manifold landscape, specific 8

During the time from 1975 to 1976 the idea to resume publication was in gestation in succession for Renmin wenxue and Shikan. And this time Ci ershou 词二首 (Two pieces of ci) by Mao came out in the January issue of the Poetical Periodical on the New Year’s Day in 1976 after it resumed publication, and the only thing that can be done in Renmin wenxue was to reprint it so as to keep up with Shikan. 9 For example, in the public speech delivered by Hu Qiaomu, Zhou Yang, and Ding Ling in the assembly to carry out a full mobilization for the rectification campaign in the art and literary circles in Peking, a barrage of harsh criticism was directed against the literary phenomenon and magazines at that time, which can all be interpreted as the deep discontent over the problems that came up in the editorship, including the slackness and mistakes committed in the accredited commissions. See for reference the campaign speech by the three persons published in the January issue of Renmin wenxue.

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structure, and developmental ecology in the contemporary Chinese literature. In this sense it might as well be said that it is the commissions executed by Renmin wenxue that provides the clear direction for the contemporary Chinese literature and causes it to come into existence, which does really not come under the domination or influence of a particular individual at will, but is invariably offered by the state institutions and the supreme power of the ideology. And, as a result, this is lodged in the political consciousness of Renmin wenxue, carried out as a mission and upheld as a sense of honor. The July issue of Renmin wenxue in 1957 is familiarly known as Gexin teda hao 革新特大号 (The extra large issue that comes up with innovations). In this issue the name of Shen Congwen appeared, as it had not done for ages, whose short essay entitled Pao longtao 跑龙套 (A walk-on part is taken) “was arranged for a special purpose to be the front-page item in the prose column for the issue.” Of curse it is no accident that the writing by Shen Congwen was brought out in Renmin wenxue against the background at that time. On May 2nd, 1956, at the Supreme State Conference, Mao Zedong pointed out that the guiding principle should be put into effect in literature, art and in academic research, where “a hundred flowers are made to blossom and a hundred schools of thought to contend.” Shortly after that in June 13th Lu Dingyi 陆定一, the Head of the Propaganda Department of CPC Central Committee, brought out in Renmin ribao the article based upon his public speech on the policy of shuangbai 双百 (A hundred flowers are made to blossom and a hundred schools of thought to contend). In June 18th the article by Mao Zedong came out under the title “Guanyu zhengque chuli renmin neibu maodun de wenti” 关于正确处理 人民内部矛盾的问题 (The matter of the correct solution to the contradictions among the people), on which he delivered a speech again on February 27th, 1957 in the eleventh enlarged meeting at the Supreme State Conference. And then the wide-ranging discussions broke out one after another on the policy of shuangbai in the academic domain and domain of literature and art. On August 24th, in talks with the figures in the musical world, Mao Zedong expounded the policy that “Makes the past serve the present and foreign things serve China, and weeds through the old to bring forth the new” (古为今用，洋为中用，推陈出新) .10 From September 15th to 27th, the Plenary Sessions of the Eighth Central Committee of CPC took place, in which it is notably advanced that the socialist system has already been established on the whole in our country, that the principal contradiction at home is the one between the advanced system and the backward productive forces, and the one between the people’s requirement for the economic and cultural development and the inability to cater for the people’s needs, which results from the current belated development of economy and culture, etc. On November 10th, the Second Plenary Session of the Eighth Central Committee convenes, where Mao Zedong proclaimed that the

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rectification campaign would be waged for the party in 1957. And 1956 is the year in which the socialist transformation was basically completed after the creation of the new Republic. From March 6th to 13th, 1957, the working conference about the propaganda was organized in the CPC Central committee, where Mao Zedong gave an increasing prominence during talks to the pressing matter of the intelligentsia, of the preparation for the rectification, of the reinforcement for the ideological work, etc. The non-Party personages took up the invitations to the conference. On April 27th the CPC Central committee issued an official announcement about “Guanyu zhengfeng yundong de zhishi” 关于整风运动的指示 (The instructions on the rectification campaign), with a view to the key decision to launch a rectification campaign by the whole party. The theme that runs through the campaign is to work towards the correct solution to the contradictions among the people; while the content that is pursued for the rectification is to combat bureaucracy, sectarianism and subjectivism. On February 2nd, an editorial was published in Renmin ribao under the title “Wei shenme yao zhengfeng?” 为什么要整风？ (Why does the rectification need to be performed?). It was just during the time from April to May the rectification campaign got underway step by step in the whole party, while it was the widespread practice all over the country, to contend and to come under criticism and a package of proposals were forwarded inside and outside the Party. On May 6th, the CPC Central committee made a public announcement about the instructions on the continuation of criticism that the non-Party personages are arranged to direct against the shortcomings and errors that the party and government have committed in the work. From May 8th to June 3rd, the leading cadres of every Democratic Party and nonparty democratic personages were invited to go to the thirteenth open forum held by the United Front Work Department of CPC Central Committee, on the expression of criticism and views about the work of the CPC Central committee and political life of the Republic. And in the meantime on May 14th, a circular order was issued by the state Ministry of Culture to overturn a blanket ban on the performances of all the traditional operas in the list against which the general prohibition had been imposed. However, on May 15th, Mao Zedong wrote the article entitled “Shiqing zhengzai qi bianhua” 事情 正 在 起 变 化 (A change for the worse has been occurring to the affair), in which he urged that a clear understanding be broadened about the situation of the class struggle, and the rapt attention be turned to the attacks unleashed by the Rightists. In spite of that the latter half of May saw the continuation of the rectification campaign. On May 19th, Renmin ribao brought out the leading article under the title “Continue Contending in Combination with the Rectification.” It was not until the first decade in June that a momentous marked deterioration occurred to the political situation. On June 8th, the CPC Central Committee issued an order “The Instructions on the

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Mobilization of Forces in Preparation for the Counterattack against the Rightists.” On the very day Renmin ribao published the editorial entitled “Zhe shi wei shenme” 这是为什么？ (What’s the reason for that?), which marked the massive organization in the days to follow of the Anti-Rightist Campaign all over the country. And the campaign was continued and intensified up until the summer of 1958 when it was brought to an end by and large. To take account of the course, what deserves a mention in particular is that the CPC Central Committee issued a public proclamation to shatter the blistering attacks mounted by the Rightists nation-wide. From then on, the rectification and Anti-Rightist Campaign became, in fact, a political movement for all the people. During the course of the events, a meticulous detail is of paramount importance because the fate of many people is held in its hands, and many events are under its domination. It was just when Mao Zedong had found out that “a change for the worse was occurring to the affair” that the original rectification campaign is not only stepped up out of sheer inertia, but also supported, and the changes were almost too subtle to come to much notice of people, so much so that they could not at all be placed on full alert. And this has assumed weighty responsibility for the overwhelming success of the so-called flagrant conspiracy to entice the forces of evil to come out of hiding, in which the whole campaign results at one stroke in the end. The present author lays particular stress in this article on the fine detail just because it was at the dangerous juncture that Gexin teda hao and the writing by Shen Congwen were both put out by Renmin wenxue, which is absolutely critical enough to place in its hands the fate of the national journal, when the situation was rapidly deteriorating. And this, so to speak, could be the greatest misfortune in the midst of all adversities. As far as the central proposition is concerned in this article, beyond any doubt, the accredited commissions were simply something like digging one’s own grave, which were executed by Renmin wenxue during the period. However, the journal could not at all be in control of its own destiny to avert the awful tragedy on it own, because it had to bring forth a quick response to the appeal issued in the Policy of shuangbai, whereupon it could not help being led down into its own grave it had dug by itself, to which the journal was directly incited by the those cadres in charge of the literary and art circles. It is natural that the world of literature and art must have plenty of scope for its talent after the Policy of shuangbai was established, which occupies a prominent role in the strategic planning required in the long-term plan of the state for the literary development of the new Republic. But the political design is needed for the specific operation or tactics and means, which is not the matter purely under the duty of literature. From the theoretical aspect, the Policy of shuangbai should allow for or acknowledge the possibility where the fragrant flowers would come into bloom along with the poisonous weeds. Nevertheless, the poisonous weeds

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which are vulgarly blatant and already known to people are, in fact, beyond the bounds of possibility for blooming, and otherwise the reactionary literature and art would take advantage of the opportunity to regain its popularity just as passed off as the progressive literature and art. And meanwhile, despite the generous public support that should be provided for the red fragrant flowers, the progressive literature and art, the situation is not magnificent enough in all its splendor to mark the grand occasions where a hundred flowers are made to blossom. And therefore that what blossom should be made to come out must really be treated with the due caution. To commission authors to write is to be in search of flowers, but brilliant minds that yield revealing insight are required to provide the practical pointers for the pursuit of the place full of flowers. And then “Zhou Yang who took charge of the literary and art circles ‘gave an earful of advice’ to the leading cadres of the publications under the control of China Authors Association, to make the writers of the older generation ‘respond to the special request’ to contribute articles, who have quit writing for many years.” To Yan Wenjing 严文井, the chief editor of Renmin wenxue, Zhou Yang said, “You should go to see Shen Congwen. If he is able to come out of retirement, it would astonish people at home and abroad. And it would be a resounding victory that you notch up in the accredited commissions!” Yan Wenjing has developed a close personal friendship with Shen Congwen, and he complied with his wish with pleasure. Soon he went to call on Shen Congwen,10 together with Li Qingquan 李清泉, the Director of the Editorial Department. This is the entire process that began with the accredited commission given to Shen Congwen and was ended with the publication of his Pao longtao. By giving a confidential briefing Zhou Yang issued the fresh instructions to the national journal on commissioning Shen Congwen to write, which was 10

“Shen Congwen xie Pao longtao” 沈从文写《跑龙套》 (Shen Congwen wrote A walk-on part is taken) written by Tu Guangqun, based upon Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1. A note is offered here by the present author, where Li Qingquan then took actual charge of such day-to-day work as the concrete editorial business, etc. for Renmin wenxue, and the July issue of Renmin wenxue in 1957 was completed under his editorship, familiarly known as Gexin teda hao, in addition to the previous issue, the combined issue of May and June. However, in the Anti-Rightist Campaign that followed, these issues all became the proof of his guilt. In the Editorial Department of Renmin wenxue he was the first leading cadre to have been branded as the Rightist. In the summer of 2003, the present author went to pay a visit to the old man Li Qingquan at the advanced age of eighty in Beijing. I feel profound gratitude at his graceful condescension to favor me with his adequate instruction, where much historical material was culled from his oral account, which of course include a great deal of people, events, topics and information at which this article looks. I remain immensely grateful for it, and there will be separate arrangements to be made for the material concerned.

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indeed a sophisticated device until then to have been performed under the political conditions. Although he was issued with a public reprimand for being the leading writer11 on the reactionary literature and art, his performance in the new China was always low-key and honest, wherein he did not show the slightest sign that points to his readiness to make trouble, still less give us any indication of his savage attack, and was little more than a dead tiger. Within the contemporary context of the Chinese political life, he can be assigned to the narrow category of an old writer “who has quit writing for many years,” because he committed no or little active counterrevolutionary acts in spite of his pre-liberation reactionary involvement. And hence from the political aspect, or given the political nature, of course the writings by Shen Congwen did not have the enormous capacity for the dissemination of the Reactionary Literature and Art, though they were not at all of revolutionary art and literature. He is not a political revolutionary, but it is wholly unnecessary to look upon him as a counterrevolutionary through and through. The characteristic feature that was individually tailored for him was grey in politics, the middle-of-the-road stance in his writings. At that very moment when a flower in grey appeared, a work characterized by the middle-of-the-road modes of thought, the literary landscape where a hundred flowers are made to blossom would be gilded for the flourishing age in the very manner that does not affect the overall situation, but instead is perfect enough to manifest the great order in politics. And accordingly the main emphasis must be laid on the firm belief in politics, whose knowledge must be acquired, in terms of the accredited commissions or the contemporary Chinese literature, and otherwise to execute the accredited commissions would merely allow one limited scope for the abilities of a poor craftsman at most.12 As far as literature is concerned, Zhou Yang was not an expert for nothing, a master-hand, who had an excellent command of the professional knowledge and a profound insight into the worldly wisdom, and he was sensible enough to arrive at a thorough understanding about the powerful influence and the pre-eminent position that Shen Congwen had occupied in literature. It can even be thought that an incalculable value had been placed in the deepest recesses of his mind on the literary achievement performed by Shen Congwen, and otherwise he would not have singled out him as the object of the accredited commission from “the writers of the older generation who have quit writing for many years,” for which to have secured the formal permission is the vital prerequisite in politics. Just as he said, “If Shen Congwen is able to come out of retirement, it would astonish 11

Guo Moruo, 1948. “Zhengdun wenyi sixiang gaijin lingdao gongzuo” 整顿文艺思想，改进领导工作 (Rectify the thinking in literature and art and improve the work of leadership), based on the January issue of Renmin wenxue in 1952. 12

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people at home and abroad,” from the heart for sure he knew that the major benefits would have been reaped with absolute certainty in both politics and literature from the success in this commission. To judge from the inspirational idea that he gave to Renmin wenxue, and the ambitious scheme that he designed specifically for the commission, it can readily be perceived that he is a statesman that is reasonably prescient with the situation as whole in mind, and only with such statesmanship could he be outstanding enough to take over the political leadership in the world of the contemporary Chinese literature. In the above case we are in a position to judge that it is the very commission given to Shen Congwen and the idea that gave a practical demonstration of the temporary vogue under the circumstances of the policy of shuangbai, to “make the writers of the older generation ‘respond to the special request’ to contribute articles, who have quit writing for many years,” and constituted a definite indication of the political motive behind the portrayal of the literary landscape.13 What is dogged by misfortune is that the commission and publication coincided ominously with the violent political and social upheavals. And therefore what had been achieved for the literary landscape of the times had to be utterly repudiated when the Anti-Rightist Campaign got underway, and a sharp deterioration occurred to the political situation so that the landscape of the times needed to be remolded for the Chinese literature. And then what resulted from the Policy of shuangbai was reduced to the poisonous weeds in the twinkling of an eye, and, just as the circumstances changed with the passage of time, it was identified with the errors that were committed in the accredited commissions, which was epitomized by the July issue of Renmin wenxue in 1957, in which an overnight conversion was underwent from Gexin teda hao to the special issue of 13

Tu Guangqun, “Zhongguo zuoxie fanyou saomiao” 中国作协反右扫描 (A full examination of the Anti-Rightist campaign in China Authors Association), in Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1, which says, “In March and April, 1957, Qin Zhaoyang 秦兆阳 was forced to step down actually from his post on account of his paper Xianshi zhuyi: Guangkuo de daolu 现实主义— 广阔的道路 (Realism: a broad road to go down), his problem about the modifications to the novel by Wang Meng 王蒙, and his languid slackness at the pursuit of the policy of shuangbai. Li Qingquan ‘received the instructions in the dire peril’ to return to the Editorial Department to take over the editorship of Renmin wenxue.” He demonstrated the audacity to comply with the instructions from leadership of China Authors Association with grim determination; he had no hesitation in implementing the policy of shuangbai. He had great courage, acumen, and diligence as an editor, to have brought out the edition of Renmin wenxue that is the embodiment of the policy of shuangbai in Gexin teda hao of July and the combined issue of May and June in 1957. Under his editorship the range was extended for the execution of the accredited commissions, so much so that a reasonable number of such authors of the older generation could capture public attention, who had achieved their literary career since the May Fourth Movement, as Kang Baiqing 康白情, Shen Congwen, etc., and in the meantime some best works were put out, which were written by such writers of new generation as Li Guowen 李国文, Zong Pu 宗璞, etc.”

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the poisonous weeds. “An extensive collection of the poisonous weeds of Renmin wenxue was very soon compiled and printed by China Authors Association as a restricted publication.” One major charge filed against Li Qingquan, one of the leading cadres in charge of the journal, was “to edit the publication for ‘the dissemination of the reactionary art and literature,’ ” namely the grave errors in the execution of the accredited commissions. Of the leading cadres who took charge of the publications he was the first to have been branded as the Rightist.14 The basis was no longer provided for the formation of judgment under the value system on the merits and demerits, and right and wrong in the accredited commissions, which was entirely subject to or depended on the demand for the interests in politics or guojia wenxue.

Organizing Manuscripts Utters in the Literary Form the Unspoken Words Left to the Understanding of the Public from the Political Aspect It is not with utter certitude that the strategic endeavor or political background is outlined in the execution of all the accredited commissions; however, as a professional work in literature, it is impossible for the accredited commission not to enforce the political standard as the number-one priority to be taken over all others, which is primarily stipulated in the current system of the contemporary Chinese literature or guojia wenxue. And hence behind the literary form of the commissions some clear or obscure meaning could always be deciphered in politics, which is carried by the unspoken words. In a specific case of the accredited commissions, especially of those important commissions, it is a virtual certainty that a fair reflection can be provided on the undeniable truth about the interpersonal relations in the interests of politics within the realm of Chinese literature. In other words, the accredited commissions sometimes constitute an underlying form taken by the interpersonal contention in politics in the domain of the contemporary Chinese literature. In the interpersonal struggle in politics the purpose is the division or ownership of interests, the form is the accredited commissions, and politics is the baton that symbolizes the exercise of the greatest power by delegation. In the latter half of 1955, after the campaign came to an end against the clique headed by Hu Feng 胡风, what followed hot on its heels was the campaign against the faction under the control of Ding Ling and Chen Qixia 陈企霞. A question may arise as to why Ding and Chen became the target to come under blistering attack. There is nothing else for it but their involvement with the Hu 14

Tu Guangqun, “Zhongguo zuoxie fanyou saomiao” in Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1.

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Feng Clique. The Ding-Chen Faction was regarded as the close ally of the Hu Feng Clique inside the Party, and the main faction in the position of strength, over whom the Clique attempted to win from the structure of power in literature. In addition the prominent figures from the two groups did not become the members of the circle under the domination of Zhou Yang; instead they were even the members of the group in opposition to the Zhou Yang Circle. After the Hu Feng Clique was suppressed, it was the time to expose and criticize the Ding-Chen Faction, and the Feng Xuefeng 冯 雪 峰 Coterie as well. It is reasonable to say that the Faction was implicated in the Hu Feng case, for which the pretext was cooked up in fact, as one explanation presented itself. Like the Hu Feng case, the case of Ding and Chen caused a lot of people to have got mixed up in the indictment, of whom the most well-known was the Caucus of Shu Qun 舒群, Luo Feng 罗烽, and Bai Lang 白朗. It was just during the time that the arrangement was completed for Renmin wenxue and the Party branch of the authors to expose and criticize the Caucus, when the enlarged conference was convened by the Party leading group of China Authors Association, because the three persons not only enjoyed a close intimacy with the anti-Party reactionary Xiao Jun 萧军, but also developed a good rapport with Ding Ling, as they and Xiao were all divided into the group known in the modern literary history as the Group of the Northeastern China Writers, while Xiao did not get along with Zhou Yang. The two groups were timed in the end to reap their destiny in the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957, where the necessity does not arise from the discussion here on that of Ding, Chen, Feng, etc., and the couple Luo and Bai were both marked out as the Rightist, whereas Shu had to stick on the label of the anti-Party reactionary. To impose the disciplinary sanction against them it is on purpose to draw an underlying distinction between them, in which Shu was not labeled as the Rightist. “Shu was kept from the further maltreatment as if expression was given to ‘a differentiation that was made when punishment was meted out to them’, and to the ‘leniency’, but the disciplinary measure was still imposed on him within the Party, in which he was transferred to work at a lower level on a long-term basis.” However, according to the principle they were all deprived of the right to bring out publications, and no magazine dared to give them the accredited commissions. To be commissioned or solicited for contributions is, above all, “the political treatment,” the assessment of one’s political position and status. But, much to people’s surprise, “Zai changshi yiwai” 在厂史以外 (Outside the range of the factory’s history) came out in the September issue of Renmin wenxue in 1962, a short story that bore the signature of Shu Qun. The real cause is shown as follows. Tu Guangqun, an elderly editor of Renmin wenxue, spelt out a point of detail that gives much food for thought. “In August, 1962, a forum was chaired by Shao Quanlin 邵荃麟 on the creation of novels on the rural theme, and Zhou

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Yang went to deliver a speech. When the forum broke up, I found that Shu Qun who hadn’t appeared in public for ages came to see Zhou probably to enter into a comprehensive explanation about his awkward situation.” “Soon Renmin wenxue received direct instructions from Zhou, under which Shu was in a position to be commissioned.” “Shortly after that he sent from Benxi 本溪 his contribution ‘Zai changshi yiwai’.” “Until then contact had been broken off between the writer Shu Qun and the reading public for a long time, and it was seven or eight years that had elapsed without publications since his short story Cui Yi 崔毅 was brought out in Renmin wenxue in 1954.”15 It seems that the various methods for punishment, in which “a differentiation was made when punishment was meted out to them,” served a political role in not only defeating but also “disintegrating” “the hostile camp.” The “leniency” that had been shown in advance in the disciplinary action against Shu foreshadowed in the end the possibility in the imagination for the interpersonal relations in the interests of politics. It is also the values of the political space. Here full expression was allowed to the accredited commissions, where, to remit the disciplinary sanction against Shu, Zhou adopted the manner in which his direct instructions were issued to Renmin wenxue on the solicitation of the contribution, wherein Shu were emancipated to regain his political position by publishing works in Renmin wenxue. It is self-evident that it is impossible for Renmin wenxue to give Shu the accredited commission without the instructions from Zhou, and to publish even though he sent his contributions, to say nothing of publication of his works within so short a time. His short story “Zai changshi yiwai” was later included in Jianguo yilai youxiu duanpian xiaoshuo xuan 建国 以来优秀短篇小说选 (Selected short stories of excellence published since the founding of PRC), which was brought out in 1980 by the publishing house of Renmin wenxue. His experience is a rare case that ends with good fortune, whereas each of the opposite cases highlights its unhappiness in its own way. “It was probably in the latter half of 1954 that a manuscript submitted by Xu Maoyong 徐懋庸 was received by Pinglunzu 评论组 (The Reviewing Group) in Renmin wenxue when a barrage of criticism began to be directed against Hu Feng, which looks at the past events that lead up to the acrimonious disputes among the literati in the literary and art circles in 1930s.” He Qifang 何其芳, a member of the Editorial Board, suggested sending it to Zhou for his examination. Soon it was returned with a scathing remark that suggests that ‘This person has not achieved any real progress at all.’ … The Reviewing Group would no longer dare to issue a solicitation to Xu for contributions in a rash manner thereupon after the 15

Tu Guangqun, “Shu Qun de yuyan xiaoshuo” 舒群的寓言小说 (The allegories by Shu Qun), in Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1.

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manuscript was sent back to Xu.”16 Although Xu had come in for trenchant criticism in some certain scope, he still held a post to carry out his public duty; since he had not yet been knocked down crushingly in politics, on the grounds of which he should have qualified for writing and publication, and should have become the one to whom the accredited commissions were given by Renmin wenxue, in virtue of the status and reputation that he had acquired in literature. But, a big effort is intensified to uncover the reason behind the delicate situation where only a remark addressed by Zhou could actually cause Renmin wenxue “not to dare any longer to give commissions to Xu Maoyong in a reckless way from then on.” The reason would perhaps be seen by implication in a word put in by the then editor from the Reviewing Group. He said, “I am tremendously impressed with the matter, (which refers to the remark uttered by Zhou according to the present author), and foster an acute awareness that exceedingly complex and unpredictable relations have been cultivated among the people of the older generation in the 1930s.”17 In accordance with the statement generalized in this article, whether to commission or not depends on the specially designated interpersonal relations in the interests of politics. The remark passed by Zhou awakened Renmin wenxue to the harsh reality that it would “not be appropriate to commission Xu any more,” even though the theme on which the accredited commissions were executed had nothing to do with politics. It was true that Xu Maoyong published articles in Renmin wenxue in the days to come, but it was thanks to the political climate that he was in the position to do, which was created early in1957 to make the rectification and to voice one’s opinions. And of course he was decisively knocked down very soon after the political atmosphere was dramatically changed with the conduct of the Anti-Rightist Campaign. In the beginning of 1950s, Hu Qiaomu and Zhou Yang both stayed in office as the Deputy Head of the Propaganda Department of CPC Central Committee, together with Lu Dingyi, the Departmental head, and the personal attitude that they adopted sometimes diverged considerably in concrete terms towards the similar problem. To take as an example Taiyang zhaozai Sangganhe shang 太阳 照在桑干河上 (The sun shines on the Sanggan River), it was comparatively evident for Zhou to have leveled criticism against it, whereas Hu came out in his support for it on the whole. As for Hu Feng and the writers from his Clique, the stance that Zhou took up on them was widely known to all, while Hu Qiaomu did not look upon them as the common foe in the beginning. In 1955 when Mao Zedong sought the opinions from Lu Dingyi and Hu Qiaomu about the disciplinary actions taken against the Hu Feng Clique, it was only Hu Qiaomu 16 17

Tu Guangqun, “Zhongguo zuoxie fanyou saomiao”, in Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1. Ibid.

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that ventured his personal opinion that differed from that of Mao Zedong, because he thought that ample evidence had not come to light.18 In particular, during the two or three years before the matter, it was just in virtue of the direct intervention made by Hu Qiaomu that it was arranged for Lu Ling 路翎 to go to observe and learn from the real life built in the Korean War of resistance against America and support of Korea, and in the meantime he offered his unswerving support for the publication of the works written by Hu Feng and Lu Ling. “When he issued the specific order to give them the accredited commission, Yan Wenjing and Ge Luo 葛洛 who were both kept in the forefront took up the matter in person to execute the accredited commission.” Here the necessity does not demand the exploration of the works by Hu Feng. From 1953 to 1954 in Renmin wenxue Lu Ling published in succession a lot of such works as Ji Li Jiafu tongzhi 记李家福同志 (A special feature on comrade Li Jiafu), Zhanshi de xin 战士的心 (The hearts and minds of the fighters), Chuxue 初雪 (The first snow), Wadi shang de zhanyi 洼地上的战役 (The battle in the low-lying land) etc., which found distinct echoes. And all this became a reality under the special circumstances at that time, due to the specific instructions from Hu Qiaomu, etc. to Renmin wenxue to have executed the accredited commission for the 18

Wang Kang, 1999, issue 12, in which, “before the publication of the second set of material on the Hu Feng Clique Chairman Mao introduced an irreversible change, from the original decision where the Group was thought to be the Hu Feng Faction Of Literature And Art, to the criminal conviction in which the Group was condemned as the Hu Feng Anti-Party Clique, and he decided that Hu Feng would be placed under arrest and brought to justice. And he held a consultation with Lu Dingyi and Hu Qiaomu on the decision. In 1980 when comrade Hu Qiaomu heard the news reports on the reexamination of the rehabilitation of the Case of the Hu Feng Counterrevolutionary Clique, which was presented in the meeting summoned in the Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee, he said that he stated that criticism should be leveled against the literary and art thinking of Hu Feng, when the Chairman asked him for his opinion on the punishment of the Group. But, he believed that abundant evidence had not been accumulated if it was condemned as Hu Feng Anti-Party Clique. Besides he thought it inappropriate to put Hu Feng under arrest since the public announcement was just issued about the Constitution, about which written reference can be found in Hu Qiaomu huiyi Mao Zedong 胡乔木回忆毛泽东 (Mao Zedong is brought to mind by Hu Qiaomu) on p. 13. And Comrade Hu Qiaomu said that Lu Dingyi was in agreement with the Chairman in every respect about his irreversible decision when the Chairman sought his opinion about the severe punishment. In the meeting at that time about the news reports it was believed that Hu Qiaomu said that Premier Zhou Enlai urged that notice be brought to the matter by the Propaganda Department and the United Front Work Department of CPC Central Committee, in which A Long had been on the staff of the underground intelligence service, who gathered military intelligence for our side, when the Premier read the third set of material on the Hu Feng Counterrevolutionary Clique. Hu Qiaomu also said that a mounting anxiety arose, in which his political life might come to an end very soon because he ventured his dissenting opinion contrary to the decision of the Chairman.”

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special purpose.19 Given the irreconcilable conflict between Zhou Yang and the Hu Feng School, which protracted from the past to the present times, in virtue of his special political position and status, it was only Hu Qiaomu that could determine the successful or unsuccessful outcome achieved in the accredited commission and publication of Renmin wenxue, which were fraught with a trial of strength in terms of the exercise of the interpersonal power, who had gone beyond the position of power of and interest relations between Zhou Yang and Hu Feng. If Hu Qiaomu had not contributed to it as a crucial factor, whether or not to commission the authors of the Hu Feng School would have then entirely depended on the balance of forces between Zhou Yang and Hu Feng. If so, it would have produced a totally different outcome with utter certitude. With regard to it the present author would like to explore a different possibility of the situation in his judgment. It remains open to question, whether Hu Qiaomu stepped up a determined effort to provide the authors of the Hu Feng School with considerable encouragement had every intention of imposing restraints on and affecting the balance of Zhou Yang’s power over the whole world of letters under his rule, so as to implement his political strategy. It is believed that “the effort that he made was so inordinately enormous” that it must have uttered some unspoken words in politics. And perhaps it would be superficial to consider his attempt no more than a special instruction to Renmin wenxue on the professional work to execute the accredited commission. However, the political circumstances that assumed the ultimately crucial importance changed after all, wherein Hu Feng, Lu Ling and the like suffered more and more obvious disadvantage. The 19 Tu Guangqun, “Ji Luling” 记路翎 (A special feature on Lu Ling), in Tu Guangqun, 2005, vol. 1, where, “It would have become utterly inconceivable for Renmin wenxue to create so many spaces, from the latter half of 1953 to the spring of 1954, to put out prominently the short stories of excellence by Lu Ling in succession, which describe the Korean War of resistance against America and support of Korea, if the instructions had not been given by Comrade Hu Qiaomu, who stayed in office at that time as the Deputy Head of the Propaganda Department of CPC Central Committee, under which Lu Ling was arranged to go to the front in Korea to observe and learn from the real life, and if the leading group had not carried out a major reorganization for Renmin wenxue in the latter half of 1953.” “In July, 1953, as a result of the leadership reshuffle in Renmin wenxue, the veteran theoretician of art and literature Shao Quanlin took up the concurrent post as the Chief Editor, who was the newly appointed Secretary of the Leading Party Members’ Group of China Authors Association, the writer Yan Wenjing acted as the Deputy Editor and the Director of the Editorial Department, Ge Luo as the Deputy Director of the Editorial Department, and Hu Feng was admitted into the Editorial Board.” “At the moment Hu Qiaomu made a direct order that Renmin wenxue unite with the authors from all sides in addition to publication of the works by such authors as Hu Feng, Lu Ling, etc.” “And accordingly the new policy was formulated for the editorship of Renmin wenxue”, “but, in terms of publication of the works by Hu Feng as well as the works by Lu Ling, the major writer of the Hu Feng School, no one would have dared to arrive at the policy decision since no one was in the position to pluck up so outstanding courage, if Hu Qiaomu had not issued the specific order, who was the major cadre in charge of literature and art.”

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decision of strategic importance, which was reached by Mao Zedong, who wielded the greatest power, dictated the “correctness” and success of Zhou Yang in the end, whereupon even Hu Qiaomu had to step down from his post for a time. It was just at that very moment that it seemed that a dominant mood was brewing up, which was created by some from the leadership of the literary and art circles to put up a vehement opposition to the novels by Lu Ling, when favorable comment was invited on the novels by Lu Ling to a significant extent. Once Zhou Yang went to China Authors Association, to whom the woman comrades from the Division of the Creation Study talked by speaking highly of the novel Wadi shang de zhanyi, and Zhou Yang smiled and said, “What? You did not learn to distinguish between the sentiment of the petty bourgeoisie and that of the proletariat!”20 And the necessity does not force the detailed description of the result here. From the same kind of instances as the one cited above it is not difficult to arrive at the conclusion or come up with the idea that the accredited commissions as well as publication, in particular, the publication and commissions executed by such journals as Renmin wenxue, on a case by case basis, gives utterance to the specially designated unspoken words in politics, and serves as an indication of the specially designated interpersonal relations in the political interest, even though any relevance is not established to politics. And therefore the accredited commissions constitute a form to undertake the literary activities where the power struggle or interest contests are run in the realm of contemporary Chinese literature.

A Concise Summary of the Cost Involved in the Accredited Commissions to Write on the Authorized Themes As soon as it is confirmed that it is from the angle of the accredited commissions that the study is carried out on Renmin wenxue and the contemporary Chinese literature, it can be immediately discovered that the cases of the accredited commissions as well as the historical material relevant to them are amply copious enough to be gleaned for the compilation of the history of the accredited 20 See Ji Luling by Tu Guangqun. Furthermore, the historical material included in this article is, in the main, based upon the first volume of Wushi nian wentan qinli ji by Tu Guangqun, who granted the face-to-face interviews to the present author and showed his generosity when providing the present author with the written material concerned as well as the historical material in his oral account, for which thanks are again expressed. And the material that has been gleaned from the interviews would be systematized and used on separate occasions.

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commissions in the realm of the contemporary Chinese literature, which, furthermore, are of the paramount importance, and exist in the exceptional circumstances, because they perform a specific role in being directly involved in or passing into the history of the contemporary Chinese literature in terms of its basis. Their significance lies in the provision of the intellectual nourishment for the composition of the literary history, on the one hand, and in the full participation in or the profound influence upon the rewriting or revision that are undertaken in later ages to the literary history, on the other hand. In this sense the accredited commissions have, in fact, exerted the substantial impact up to now on the literary history, which turns out to be a vast range of prospects whose studies remain yet to be conducted in a systematic way. This article explores, in the main, the accredited commissions from the angle of politics in the contemporary Chinese literature. However, the original intention could not be stated to the full due to the limitation on the length of the article, because the sustainable development has yet to be facilitated at a higher level to decode the unspoken words of the accredited commissions from the angle of politics. And in addition to the political aspect there should be some other viewing angles workable likewise, such as the literary dissemination, from which intensive studies could be undertaken without reservation on the accredited commissions. At the end of this article a brief summary is supplied as follows to carry out an analysis of the cost associated with the accredited commissions. The operating cost is of course needed to be invested in the accredited commissions, which require the publications to make the investment of labor power, financial resources, time, etc in actuality. The cost investment is obviously the greatest for such publications as Renmin wenxue. The feature that characterizes the overall investment in the accredited commissions of the contemporary Chinese literature is that only the accounts in politics is kept or mainly kept whereas the accounts in economy is not done or slightly done. Such a mode or method of calculation, based on the politics-economy system, is of course dictated by the consideration to look after the paramount interest of guojia wenxue, or remain entirely subject to the feature characteristic of the planning system of the state. To an adequate degree, a few literary magazines on the national level, which had achieved the status of the state journal, including Renmin wenxue, enjoyed to the hilt the absolutely excellent treatment offered by the state planning system where the art and literary undertakings were run with a whole nation’s strength. And accordingly the fear of disturbance does not usually haunt them in the rear in terms of the cost involved in the accredited commissions by virtue of their sustainable national resources. In other words its commissions could be executed at all costs or with no thought for the cost investment in economy. What counts is to seek the categorical assurances that the politically qualified literary works should be created up to standard in

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political view, wherein the quality of the political creation is the vital lifeline that holds out the quality for the literary composition, and determines, meanwhile, the method of calculation to work out the value or price of the economic cost. Those years saw my going on a long journey in the many places of the country for the greater part of each year, from Heilongjiang to Hainan, from Shanghai to Xinjiang, from Henan to Hunan, and my shuttling back and forth in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. And I journeyed all over China. … Comrade Li Ji 李季, (the then Chief Editor of Renmin wenxue, according to the present author) issued a trenchantly peremptory order by saying that you must travel far away from home, and it does not matter whether it takes more or less time, but you have to procure brilliant contributions. It is in the locality that your improvement should be made for the most part to the original contributions before you bring to completion your intelligent compilation, and you should try to see to it that the contribution that you take back would be the polished works that can be scheduled for publication. Lift up by the head21 to see me if you fail to obtain the excellent contributions!22 As far as the subjective desire was concerned for the accredited commissions to be executed by the magazines, doubts were wholly unnecessary to arise over the underlying motives behind it, which was to commission the brilliant works. However, in the final analysis, the very reason that such wishful thinking could dominate in this manner is that the magazines on the national level felt utterly secure in the knowledge of having strong backing in terms of the budget for the cost investment. That is to say, there was no need, in fact, to take account of the budget for the cost. To give it careful thought today, it does come into question whether to squander or even to waste the resources in this manner. However, the exceptional circumstances surrounding the contemporary Chinese literature, in particular, its institutional regulations and organizational methods, enable such 21

A vulgar idiom that often appears in the classical Chinese art and literature means that one has to commit suicide as punishment for the abortion of his combat mission. 22 Zhou Ming, “Bianjibu de laoshi men” 编辑部的老师们 (The mentors from the editorial department), in Zhou Ming, 1999. And what is more, because of the studies interrelated, during the course of the interviews with the editors of older generation, interested parties, and witnesses, the present author has been supplied with a wealth of similar historical details on the accredited commissions or account or recollection of those conditions. And there are bound to be some ideas in the mind of the present author due to what he heard in an absolutely huge range. However, it is with deep regret that the interviewees offer such kind of historical material in tones of utter admiration without exception, to which they show their positive attitude, while the present author bases his inordinate ambitions upon it in the end. And therefore the same historical material takes on a conflicting role as the result in terms of its value and function.

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accredited commissions to be the instructive anecdotes in literature not only in those days, but also still for the present time. Audited are not the accounts in economy, but only those in politics, and in reverse it may be said that the accounts in economy offer service in all respects to the accounts in politics. In this sense the accounts in economy are done to the nth degree, wherein the supreme importance is, in fact, placed on the accounts in economy. Obviously in such a field of vision and study it is increasingly clear that the accredited commissions have acquired its status of value and significance for the contemporary Chinese literature. And this is of course part of the essential feature that characterizes the accredited commissions in the realm of the contemporary Chinese literature.

Conclusion In the statement above, I have time and time again stressed an individual’s (my) literary criticism moral law and the core value of literary criticism. My intention is to emphasize the importance of literature moral law of an individual critic to the literary criticism practice. This can be illustrated by an analogy. When human being fully developed from animal kingdom to the most advanced animal, immediately, the balance of force in the animal world changed substantially, which resulted in the contraction relations between human (the hunter) and other animals (the hunted). However, when human-induced factor aggravates the decrease of animal species and population or results in their extinction, the stronger will start to go on a road of peril and extinction. Therefore, two kinds of laws have come into being regarding to animal protection, namely, established laws and moral laws about animal protection. The motivation for these laws is out of both the interest of human being, and the identification of value and right of all lives. It is clear that the latter is more transcendental, and belongs to the life moral at a loftier level. That is to say, though moral law is not mandatory which is true for established laws, moral law actually embodies higher human moral spirit in comparison with established laws. As moral law is not as mandatory as established laws, it mainly hinges on people’s conscious appeal or bearing. Moral law is a conscious or voluntary practice, and it fundamentally defines the formation and establishment approach of written laws, especially its moral level. Therefore, it seems to me that, what kind of literature moral law a critic holds is the touch stone of the true content of his literary criticism values and thereof practices. Only moral law is a voluntary bearing; after all, literary criticism (critic) has free choices. This also grants the rightful right and sufficient possibility of multi-dimensional appeal. My literary moral law is only my personal view, and an embodiment of my literary values, and perhaps not the only embodiment. As

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to the tendency and reality that the present literary criticism is witnessing constant generalization and evolution, I believe that it is necessary to urge literary (criticism) critics to consciously shoulder the responsibility to protect the ecology and environment of literature.

References Guo Moruo 郭沫若 (1948) “Chi fandong wenyi” 斥反动文艺 (Issue a reprimand for the reactionary literature and art), in Dazhong wenyi congkan 大众文艺丛刊 (Collected writings of the art and literature for the masses), part 1, 1948. Tu Guanqun 涂光群 (2005), Wushi nian wentan qinli ji 五十年文坛亲历记 (The personal experience of the world of letters for fifty years), Shenyang: Liaoning jiaoyu chubanshe. Wang Kang 王康 (1999), “Wo canjia shencha Hu Feng an de jingli” 我参加审查胡风案的经历 (The past experience that I shared in the investigation into the Hu Feng Case), in Bainian chao 百年潮 (The centesimal trend), issue 12, 1999. Wu Jun 吴俊 (2006), “Wenyi zhengfeng xuexi yundong (1951–1952) yu Renmin wenxue” 文 艺整风学习运动（1951－1952）与《人民文学》 (The rectification campaign in literature and art from 1951 to 1952 in relation to The People’s Literature), in Nanfang wentan 南方文坛 (The world of letters in the South), issue 3, 2006. Zhou Ming 周明 (1999), in Xueluo Huanghe 雪落黄河 (Snow flutters on the Yellow River), Renmin ribao chubanshe.

About the Contributor Wu Jun 吴俊, currently Professor of Nanjing University he received his Ph.D. in literature from East China Normal University in 1990. His research is, on the whole, conducted into modern & contemporary Chinese literature. He has published more than twenty scholarly works, translations and compilations, including Maoxian de lüxing 冒险的旅行 (Adventurous journey), Lu Xun gexing xinli yanjiu 鲁迅个性心理研究 (Research on the individual psychology of Lu Xun), Dongyang wenlun 东洋文论 (Literary theories of Japan), to name just a few, and won more than twenty awards and prizes in literature and academic research.

About the Translator Zhang Ruogu 张若谷, Professor in the School of Foreign Languages, Guizhou Normal University, currently teaches the classical Chinese poetry in the University of Zagreb. And the recent years have seen his systematic compilations of The Concise-English Dictionary of the Chinese Quotations and The Concise Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Heritage.