Veget Hist Archaeobot (2014) 23:341–354 DOI 10.1007/s00334-014-0462-2
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Living in wetlands in the southeastern Baltic region during the Late Bronze to early Iron Age: the archaeological context of the Luokesa lake settlements Elena Pranck_enait_e
Received: 6 August 2013 / Accepted: 22 April 2014 / Published online: 11 May 2014 Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract The prehistoric lake settlement tradition is spread far beyond the region of the Alps, and it has been known for a long time that lake settlements are not a characteristic of one particular area. The present paper presents the results of the first comprehensive, interdisciplinary investigations of such types of sites in Lithuania, the two lake settlements at Lake Luokesa (Luokesai ezˇeras). They were excavated with underwater archaeology techniques between 2000 and 2011. They are Late Bronze to early Iron Age transition (LBA–EIA) in date and were probably built and inhabited during a short period between 625 and 535 cal BC. The excavated archaeological material contains a wealth of well-preserved wooden architectural details and other organic materials. Therefore, the importance and unique character of these sites is beyond question. This paper gives an overview of the history of research on lake settlements in northeastern Europe. In addition, the archaeological material of the LBA–EIA settlements at Lake Luokesa is evaluated in the context of the other lake settlements in the southeastern Baltic region. Existing hypotheses and interpretations of the origins, development and use of the lake settlements of this region are discussed. All the investigations which have been done, including archaeobotany, palynology, dendrochronology and geoarchaeology, provide data for a well-grounded interpretation and reconstruction of the Luokesa lake settlements.
Communicated by S. Jacomet. E. Pranck_enait_e (&) Department of Archaeology, Faculty of History, Vilnius University, 7 Universiteto St., 01513 Vilnius, Lithuania e-mail:
[email protected]
Keywords Lake settlements Lithuania Wetland archaeology Archaeological data History of research Types of construction
Introduction Unquestionably, the term lake settlements, their research traditions continuing from the mid 19th century and also theoretical approaches to them are mainly connected with the circum–alpine region. However, such a prehistoric lake settlement tradition is found far beyond the region of the Alps, and it has long been proved that it is not a characteristic of one special area (Menotti 2012). The lake settlements found and investigated in the southeastern Baltic region fill a gap in the world map and expand the boundaries of the prehistoric lake settlement tradition in northeastern Europe. The investigations of the Luokesa lake sites in southeast Lithuania complement the material of the Late Bronze to early Iron Age (LBA–EIA, 1300–50 BC) in various ways (Fig. 1). The new archaeological material and new types of objects that were discovered have changed the habitation models that had been formed by earlier investigations. The archaeological material of the Luokesa lake settlements appears to be the only material so far discovered in Lithuania which contains such a wealth of well-preserved wooden architectural details and other organic material dated to the LBA–EIA. Therefore, within the common context of the period, the importance and unique character of these sites is beyond question. The investigation of the Luokesa lake settlements is an example of the application of interdisciplinary methods. The fieldwork was carried out by using underwater archaeology methods, and they were the first comprehensive
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Fig. 1 Distribution of lake settlements in the southeastern Baltic region and their type of construction. 1 lake settlements built on artificially constructed wooden platforms, 2 pile settlements (according to Rossius 1933; Okułicz 1970; Wilke 1997; Hoffmann 1999; Pydyn 2010; Pranck_enait_e 2011). 1 Babieta, 2 Barkweda, 3 Biene (Woszeller see), 4 Bogaczewo (Bogatzewen, Reichensee), 5 Bogaczewo (Narie, Narien See), 6 Borki, 7 Bonslack, 8 Czarne I (Czarnen Nord), 9 Czarne II (Czarnen Ost) (Panska Wola), 10 Debice (Debice), 11 Dobra Wola (Dobrowolla), 12 Dudka (Schraderswerth), 13 Drestwo 34, 14 Gajlo´wka (Gaylowken), 15 Gasewo (Gasso¨wen), 16 Gaski, 17 Janele (Janellen), 18 Jeglawki (Ja¨glack), 19 Kaszuny, 20 Klusy (Klaussen), 21 Knis (Gneist), 22 Konopke Male, 23 Kownatki (Kownatken), 24 Kwiecewo, 25 Leszczewo, 26 Liski, 27 Laka Dymerska (Dimmernsee), 28 Mateuszek (Zielony Gaj), 29 Moltajny
(Arklity, Arklitten), 30 Nowe Kiejkuty, 31 Nowy Harsz, 32 Obszarniki, 33 Olieniewo (Aue), 34 Orzysz (Arysee), 35 Osinki, 36 Ostro´w (Czarny/Czarnysee), 37 Pieczarki, 38 Pietrasze, 39 Pierkunowo, 40 Pilec, 41 Plociczno, 42 Plesno (Plossen), 43 Rapa (Wegorapa, Angerapp), 44 Rybno (Pillacker See), 45 Rybical, 46 Rydzewo (Rydzewen), 47 Serowo (Zedmar G), 48 Siemiany (Schwalgendorf), 49 Skomack Wielki (Tulewo, Skomacko), 50 Stare Juchy, 51 Suchodoly, 52 Szczecinowo 1-2, 53 Sztynort (Steinort), 54 Szymonka (Schimonken), 55 Teguty (Tengutten), 56 Ulpity, 57 Wilamowo (Willamowen), 58 Wilkasy (Wolfsee), 59 Worlawki, 60 Wo´jto´wko I, 61 Wo´jto´wko II, 62 Zawady Elckie, 63 Zielony Ostro´w, 64 Zielenodolskoje, 65 Powidz 16, 66 Polanowu 12, 67 Luokesu˛ 1, 68 Luokesu˛ 2
investigations of such a type in Lithuania. Since 2000, the investigations of the Luokesa lake settlements have also included various fields of environmental archaeology such as soil micromorphology, pollen and macroremain analyses (Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute 2007, 2008; Lewis 2007; Pollmann 2014; Ismail-Meyer 2014; Heitz-Weniger 2014). Dating was performed by dendrochronology, combined with series of 14C dates and wiggle-matching (Bleicher 2014). The main conclusions are based therefore on the corollary models of interdisciplinary investigations, which provide data for a well-grounded interpretation and reconstruction of the settlements in the transition period from the LBA to the EIA. The research demonstrates the possibilities for collaboration among various disciplines, as well as the significant results that can arise from their interaction. The aim of this paper is to give an overview of the history of research on lake settlements in northeastern Europe. In addition, the objective is to evaluate the archaeological material of the LBA–EIA lake settlements at Luokesa in the context of the lake settlements of the
southeastern Baltic region. The work also attempts to verify and check the existing hypotheses and interpretations of the origins, the development and use of the region’s lake sites.
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The Baltic lake settlements within their territorial and chronological context The southeastern Baltic region lies in the northeastern part of Europe (Fig. 1). It contains a belt of moraines and lakes that were formed during the last ice age by the Scandinavian glaciers, especially during the last period of the river Nemunas icing (Guobyt_e and Satku¯nas 2011). On a geopolitical map of the present day, this region covers northern and central Poland, northern Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. The lake settlements found in eastern Lithuania appear in the centre of this area (Fig. 1; Pranck_enait_e 2012). On the map of Europe this is one of the areas, between the Alps and the British Isles, in which lake
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settlements have been found and investigated. A major part of the known archaeological material comes from sites investigated in Poland. It is within this area, which contains the highest concentration of sites, that most investigations have been conducted (Fig. 1). Concerning vegetation history, the period of lake settlements in the southeastern Baltic region is related to the Subboreal and Subatlantic chronozones (Stancˇikait_e 2004; Heitz-Weniger 2014). In terms of the climatic and natural conditions, we see that lake settlements in this region were occupied during an ‘‘unfavourable’’ colder and damper climatic period (Stancˇikait_e et al. 2004; Zolitschka et al. 2003; Tinner et al. 2003). From an archaeological perspective the lake settlements under discussion were established during a transition period between the Late Bronze and early Iron Age. According to several 14C dates and dendrochronological research, they cover the time span between ca. 750–400 cal BC (Ossowski et al. 2002; Pydyn and Rembisz 2010; Kra˛piec 2000; Goslar 2000; Bleicher 2014). They can be attributed to three different archaeological cultures: the Brushed Pottery Culture (Bru¯ksˇniuotosios keramikos kultu¯ra), the West Baltic Barrow Culture (Vakaru˛ baltu˛ pilkapiu˛ kultu¯ra) and the Lusatian Culture. Based on their location, but also on their finds (brushed pottery), the lake settlements at Luokesa can be both territorially and chronologically attributed to the early stage of the Brushed Pottery Culture. In Lithuanian archaeology, the Late Bronze Age is identified with the spread of the Brushed Pottery Culture and the emergence of fortified settlements, hill-forts (Luchtanas 1992; Grigalavicˇien_e 1995). In the literature, however, issues concerning the criteria for attributing an archaeological complex to LBA or EIA are still under discussion, because within these two periods there is little difference between material culture and the specific character of the economy (Luchtanas and Sidrys 1999; Brazaˇ ivilyt_e 2008). The EIA does not have itis 2005; C archaeological finds that can be typologically distinguished and attributed exactly to it; moreover, changes in economy have not been detected. A stage of intensive economic activity had already been reached during the LBA/EIA. Livestock remained an especially important part of the economy in comparison to crop growing in the communities of Lithuania in the 1st millennium BC (Daugnora and Girininkas 2004; Luchtanas 1992). However, the LBA/EIA is still considered as poorly understood and investigated in Lithuania, as various reconstructions lack data, and the archaeological objects have also not been investigated (Brazaitis 2005). The lake settlements of the LBA–EIA transition in the region have as a common feature that they were inhabited, in nearly all cases, for only short periods of probably a few decades (Gackowski 2000; Pydyn 2010). This is also the
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case in Luokesa, where Sites 1 and 2 were in use at some time within the period 625–535 cal BC; they could be dated by a combination of dendrochronology and 14C dates (Bleicher 2014). Luokesa Site 2 (L2) was probably built 25 years earlier than Luokesa Site 1 (L1). The construction of L1 started around 600 BC and it was inhabited for no more than 20 years (Bleicher 2014). Another common trait of the LBA to EIA lake settlements is that no cultural layers of earlier or later periods have been found nearby, and that all of them are dated to the transitional period between the LBA and EIA.
History of research into lake settlements in northeastern Europe Originally, our knowledge of the existence of lake settlements in northeastern Europe which date to the transitional period of Late Bronze to early Iron Age (LBA–EIA) was based on sites found in Mazury, Poland, which have been investigated since the end of the 19th century (Fig. 1; Gackowski 1998). Until the last decades of the 20th century and the early 21st century, these sites were the only ones of their kind which were known in this region. Other lake settlements, which expanded the boundaries of the spread of these particular types of site, have been found only during the last two decades in central Poland and Lithuania, the latter being the Luokesa lake settlements (Menotti et al. 2005; Pydyn 2010). The lake settlements in the region discussed here were first discovered and investigated in the second half of the 19th century. The first stage of investigations on lake settlements in the present area of Poland can be related to the main investigator, Heydeck (1889, 1909). In 1933, K.O. Rossius presented new information about the lake settlements discovered in the lakes of East Prussia and the catalogue published by him records about 40 of these (Rossius 1933). The investigation of lake settlements in the second half of the 20th century was marked by a revival and re-analysis of the material that had already been gathered, mostly from the 19th century. The first underwater investigations of lake settlements were carried out at Rybno in 1961–1962 (Bukowski 1965; Bukowski et al. 1965). New examinations of earlier investigations and the re-location of previously known sites began in the 1980s, but not all the sites could be found again (Łapo and Ossowski 1994, 1995a, 2000a). The survey, which was carried out in 1993–2000 revealed that the existence of 70 % of the formerly described sites in the Masurian Lake District could not be corroborated. On the other hand, however, some new lake sites were discovered. During the long period of lake settlement research in the Pojezierze Mazurskie (Masurian Lake District) of Poland,
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some review publications were prepared (Heydeck 1909; Rossius 1933; Mackiewicz 1984; Okulicz 1970; Wilke 1997; Hoffmann 1999, etc.) in which data on the known lake settlements were summarised and their locations presented. All these sites were ascribed to the West Baltic Barrow Culture; they show the same type of construction, in Polish konstrukcija rusztowa and in German Packwerkbau, lake settlements built on regular platforms consisting of a number of layers of timbers. The most widely researched sites from which material is published are Mołtajny and Piezcarki (Gackowski 1995, 1998, 2000), Rybno (Bukowski et al. 1965), Bogaczewo (Łapo and Ossowski 1995b), Dre˛stwo (Ossowski et al. 2002), Rybical (Łapo and Ossowski 2000b) and Orzysz (Heydeck 1909). In 2000, a systematic underwater and land archaeological survey was conducted in and around Powidz jezioro, a lake in central Poland, in search of new archaeological sites. During the survey two pile dwellings which are of great importance were discovered, Powidz 16 and Polanowo 12, dated to the 6th century BC and belonging to the Lusatian Culture (Pydyn 2010). Knowledge of the existence of lake settlements had already reached Estonia, Latvia and Belarus by the end of 19th century, although no investigations were conducted on them. The only known pile dwelling in Estonia is in the lake Koorku¨la Valgja¨rvi in southern Estonia. This site has been excavated since 1958 (Roio 2006). Three main phases are distinguished there, the Neolithic period (3500–3100 cal BC), the Early Metal period from which two samples of wooden constructions were dated 410–110 cal BC (Roio 2007; Kriiska and Roio 2011), and the second half of the 1st millennium AD. ¯ raisˇi The only lake settlement in other Baltic states, the A lake settlement in Latvia, is already mentioned in R. Munro’s work and he compares it to a crannog (lake settlement in Scotland or Ireland) (Munro 1890). However, as this settlement is dated to the second half of the 1st millennium AD, no lake settlements dated to the early metal periods have been found in Latvia so far (Apals 2012; Urtans and Rains 2003). So far, no lake settlements dated to the LBA–EIA transition period have been found in Belarus either. The sites investigated in Sweden, Finland and Russia (in the regions of Pskov and Smolensk) have been dated to the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (Malmer 1986; Larsson 2011; Koivisto 2011; Dolukhanov and Miklyayev 1986; Mazurkevich et al. 2010; Mazurkevich and Dolbunova 2011). Information regarding the possible existence of lake settlements in Lithuania goes back to the beginning of the 20th century; their existence was mentioned by A. Spicinas, P. Tarasenka, L. Ksˇivickis and P. Galaune_ (Galaun_e 1930) and in the 1920s, discussions took place among contemporary scientists in Lithuania regarding the purpose
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and type of lake settlement constructions. The 1930s– 1950s were marked by the intensive accumulation of information about lake settlements which arose from the carrying out of land reclamation works. By the 1950s, more than ten places had been mentioned as possible settlement sites in Lithuania (Pranck_enait_e 2011). The first surveys of lake settlements using underwater archaeology were only done from the end of the 20th century onwards. However, with the exception of Luokesa, which was discovered at the turn of the 20th/21st century, no other underwater excavations of lake settlements have been done. It is possible to trace a few common features for all investigations of lake settlements in the southeastern Baltic countries. Firstly, inspirations were taken from the work and investigations carried out by F. Keller during the 19th century in Switzerland (Keller 1866; for supplementary information see Menotti 2001). Secondly, land reclamation and the consequent changes to the landscape have made it difficult to locate the sites. Finally, the increase in underwater archaeological investigations in the late 20th century has influenced the investigations of lake settlements. The lake settlements in the southeastern Baltic region are considered to be the only ones in northeastern Europe that are dated to the transition period LBA–EIA, just at the time when this building tradition of settlements in the Alpine region had come to an end (Menotti et al. 2005). Today, there are 69 known lake settlements of this period in the region (Fig. 1). The Lithuanian dwellings have not been analysed within a wider context, neither has their material been compared, as until 2000 there was no comparative material available, except for the settlements built on artificially constructed wooden platforms in the Masurian Lake District (Gackowski 1998, 2000). Only recently it was discovered that the different building types excavated in the southeastern Baltic region are unevenly distributed throughout the whole area and belong to different archaeological cultures (Pydyn 2010; Pranck_enait_e 2011). However, until now, neither the similarities nor the differences of their construction have been ascertained. A comparison of the sites is mainly hampered by the fact that only a few known lake settlements in the region have been investigated on an equally detailed scale. Therefore, only a small part of the investigated sites, for which the palaeogeographical conditions and building features are reasonably well established, can be included in a comparative analysis.
Materials and methods In Luokesa, the remains of two lake settlements (L1, L2) are located underwater on morainic shallows, at a depth of 2 m. The two sites were built on opposite sides of the lake, northern and southern (Fig. 2). The main information on
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Fig. 2 The location of the lake settlements L1 and L2 at Lake Luokesa (Luokesai ezˇeras) (map by E. Pranck_enait_e)
Fig. 3 Excavated areas in L1, location of the investigated core samples and the dendrochronological samples (map by E. Pranck_enait_e)
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Fig. 4 Excavated areas in L2, location of core samples (not investigated) and the dendrochronological samples (map by E. Pranck_enait_e)
the shape, form and size of these settlements was obtained from the arrangement of the vertical piles. The layouts of both settlements follow the shape and form of the morainic shallow; the lakeside edge of the settlements is close to the first underwater slope, about 12 m deep. Underwater archaeological investigations of the Luokesa settlements were carried out from 2000 to 2011. At L1 a total area of 28 m2 was excavated in 2000, 2004 and 2007–2011, of which 16 m2 lie in the central part of the settlement (Fig. 3). The other excavation quadrants, in total 12 m2 are located towards the edges of the settlement, mostly in the zone of the fences (Fig. 3). All areas together form a section through the settlement. At L2, a 172 m2 area in the central part was excavated in 2001–2006 (Fig. 4; Pranck_enait_e 2012). In addition, surveys using test excavations were carried out on the shores and islands of the lake with the aim of checking for possible sites (Baubonis et al. 2005). Underwater archaeological excavations were done using a water pump placed on a floating platform, which was anchored near the excavation area. A pipe was lowered on to the excavation area and water with the sediments was sucked up and lifted to the platform and into a sieving basket with a mesh size of 15 9 15 mm. Excavations were
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carried out in 2 9 2 m quadrants, which were marked by a permanent metal grid. The cultural layer which was thick in places (see below) was excavated in artificial 10 cm sublayers from the top to the bottom. In total there were around 350 piles with an average diameter of 10 cm, which were driven down more than 4 m into the lake marl. L1 consisted of a double or triple fence, a central part (20 9 30 m) and presumably a pier or place for unloading and loading, remains of possible fishing equipment or part of the fortification system (Fig. 5). The distance between the centre of the inhabited area and the fences is 8–12 m. The settlement, including fences, occupied an area of 60 9 40 m (2,400 m2). In L1 the cultural layer was 35–110 cm thick and consisted of 5–7 layers of horizontal structures of worked wood, with burning marks on timbers, half timbers and planks; (Fig. 6; Pranck_enait_e et al. 2010). Worked planks (with holes) or semi-split timbers found in the lowest layers of the site could have formed a platform frame (as illustrated in L2, see below). Plain timbers found in the upper layers of the excavated area were arranged as a grid, lying at right angles to each other (Fig. 6). The pile distribution of L2 shows a construction which resembles a fairly large platform that is linked to the shore
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Fig. 5 Plan and intersection of L1. A–B location of the intersection the excavated areas; 1 central part of the settlement, 2 possible pier or place for unloading and loading place, 3 third (=innermost) fence, 4 outer fence, 5 inner fence, 6 possible fishing equipment or a part of a fortification system. Darker colours in the intersection mark the excavated areas and the thickness of the cultural layer. (drawing by E. Pranck_enait_e)
by a walkway (Fig. 7). Timbers that formed the frame of the platform were constructed using planks with holes at their ends, probably attached to the vertical piles, and the main base of the platform was formed of horizontal and parallel timbers of 7–9 cm diameter. All the horizontal wooden structures were located in one layer, about 20–40 cm under the lake marl (Fig. 8). During archaeological excavation, no cultural layer or archaeological artefacts were discovered (Fig. 7; Baubonis and Pranck_enait_e 2012). Samples for interdisciplinary investigations were collected while carrying out archaeological investigations (Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute 2007, 2008; Lewis 2007; Bleicher 2014; Heitz-Weniger 2014; Ismail-Meyer 2014; Pollmann 2014). Samples were taken from both sites. However, the majority of the investigations were conducted only with material from L1 (Figs. 3, 4), because L2 did not contain a cultural layer. In addition to this interdisciplinary research, during 2006 and 2007 experiments were done to test the effort required and the techniques used to drive wooden piles into soft lake sediment (Menotti and Pranck_enait_e 2008).
Results and discussion The types of lake settlements and the features of their construction In L1 the preserved wooden horizontal structures were much more prominent than the vertical piles. Therefore, the architectural remains of the site which were revealed during archaeological excavations (Figs. 5, 6) correspond to those
of the artificially built wooden platforms in Poland (Gackowski 1995; Heydeck 1909). However, L1 has been identified as a pile dwelling because of the following features: 1.
2.
3.
The distribution of archaeological artefacts and their relation to the wooden structures show that almost all the archaeological finds were found in the lowest layers, under the densest layer of wooden remains of the platform and possible houses (Fig. 9). This is in contrast to the distribution of the archaeological finds revealed in the lake settlements which were built on artificially constructed wooden platforms in the Masurian Lake District (Gackowski 1995, Fig. 10; Gackowski 2000, Fig. 1). The architectural details of the frame of the structure, such as planks with holes and split logs with holes, possibly allow the reconstruction of a raised structure resting on vertical piles (Fig. 6). The micromorphological, archaeobotanical and pollen analyses of the well stratified deposits within the cultural layer seem to confirm an interpretation of L1 as a site composed of buildings with raised floors, under which cultural deposits accumulated (IsmailMeyer 2014; Pollmann 2014; Heitz-Weniger 2014).
As the botanical and micromorphological analyses indicate, L1 was built on damp ground with no traces of permanent flooding. During the occupation period the settlement area does not seem to have been permanently flooded. The examination of the type of construction of the L1 settlement shows that it belongs to the rare settlements which are of pile construction type; besides L1 we only know of two other such sites, Polanowo 12 and Powidz 16
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explanations for the purpose of such structures can be proposed: either it is an unfinished structure or its purpose was non-residential. A possible effect of erosion on the remains of L2 could be also envisaged. Comparable structures without cultural layers and of unknown function are also known from Rybical 1(Łapo and Ossowski 2000a) and Dre˛stwo 34 (Ossowski et al. 2002). To conclude, the lake settlements of the southeastern Baltic region were more diverse in form and construction than had previously been thought. Our comparative investigations show that the sites of the region should be divided, not according to territory, but to the features characteristic of their construction. Nevertheless, we can conclude that different modes of site construction existed in the southeastern Baltic region during the LBA–EIA. The economy of the inhabitants and their material culture
Fig. 6 Wooden structures in the excavated areas in L1 (drawing by E. Pranck_enait_e)
in Poland (Pydyn and Rembisz 2010). Although the features of the buildings in these three sites are different when looked at in detail, they share however one main feature, a raised wooden pile construction. This is in contrast to the sites in the Masurian Lake District, which were built on several layers of horizontal wooden timbers in a grid pattern, strengthened by vertical piles and stones, thus forming artificial islands (Pydyn 2007; Gackowski 2000). A separate type of feature whose purpose is unclear was detected in L2. Its structure has been attributed to an unclear type because of the absence of definable features inside the site; there was no cultural layer or any archaeological artefacts. In the case of L2, the site has been defined by its vertical and horizontal structures. Referring to the selected material from the southeastern Baltic region, a few possible
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Site L1 was situated on the exposed swampy shallow of the northern lake shore, on the boundary between dry land and water (Fig. 2). Waterlogging of the layer ensured that a rich variety of organic remains were preserved (Pollmann 2014; Ismail-Meyer 2014). The structure of the cultural layer and some archaeological artefacts show that the inhabitants farmed as well as gathering and hunting. The archaeobotanical data from L1 confirm the cultivation of a range of plants (Pollmann 2014). In addition, grinding stones as well as agricultural tools were found (Pranck_enait_e 2012). The cultural layer, however, was dominated by remains related to livestock and their fodder and not the remains of artefacts relating to everyday life (Ismail-Meyer 2014; Pollmann 2014). Beside dung remains however only a very few (57) animal bones, mostly of sheep, goat and pigs were found (analyses by L. Daugnora and G. Pilicˇiauskien_e, in Pranck_enait_e 2012), evidence which shows that livestock was kept at the site. Based on the available data it is not possible to assess the quantitative relationship between foraging (gathering, fishing and hunting) and farming (plant and animal husbandry) by the population of L1. We can only state that plant foods were gathered, too. Beside the meat of domestic animals, the meat of wild animals (bear, elk, hare, beaver) may also have played a certain role; however based on the few bones found and the small area excavated it is not possible to calculate a reliable ratio. Fish bones and fishing equipment such as nets, floats and fragments of fishing baskets prove fishing activities (Pranck_enait_e 2012). Household items and working tools consist of artefacts made not only of stone, flint or bone but also wood, birch and other bark (Fig. 10). Such organic finds have not been found before in the Lithuanian archaeological material of the LBA–EIA transition period and these are therefore the
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Fig. 7 Plan and intersection of L2. A–B location of the intersection according to the excavated areas; 1 platform, 2 walkway or bridge, 3 fence, 4 possible separate building (drawing by E. Pranck_enait_e)
Fig. 8 Remains of wooden constructions uncovered in L2. 1 horizontal wooden structures, 2 vertical piles, 3 stones (drawing by E. Pranck_enait_e)
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Fig. 9 Distribution of the artefacts in the excavated areas in L1, according to the layers (depths) at which they were found; number of individual artefacts are multiplied by 10 (diagram by E. Pranck_enait_e)
only artefacts of this type that have been dated to this period. Pottery of various sizes constitutes the majority of containers used for food storage, preparation and eating. The slightly brushed but undecorated pots tempered with coarse crushed granite that were found in L1 are characteristic of the Brushed Ceramics Culture (possibly a local cultural derivative or a cultural group, Fig. 11). From all the archaeological finds found in L1, only a few artefacts can be attributed to a certain period—a
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bronze pendant and the pottery. The majority of the organic artefacts are universal—their shapes and production techniques changed very little from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages. The archaeological artefacts of L1 did not reveal any differences from other material of the LBA and the EIA. What is however important is that the investigations of the settlement complement the spectrum of archaeological material with new organic finds. The finds from the lake settlements of the Masurian region (the West Baltic Barrow Culture) and central Poland (Lusatian Culture) do not have any of the essential differentiating features of these cultural groups (Rembisz 2010a, b; Gackowski 2000). Connections between the West Baltic Barrow Culture and the Brushed Pottery Culture have been detected in the types of artefacts and the complexes of the finds themselves from the settlements (Luchtanas 1992; Brazaitis 2005; Gackowski 2000). The investigation of the interrelations of these cultural groups is a future issue that requires a separate study. Possible reasons for the establishment and abandonment of lake settlements Why the inhabitants of these sites may have decided to live in constantly wet and even flooded locations is one of the main questions in lake settlement research, and answers are hard to establish. Modern day assumptions that the living conditions in such lake settlements were uncomfortable are
Fig. 10 Artefacts made of organic material found in L1. 1 wooden spoon, 2 axe handle, 3 bast chord fragment, 4 wooden household item; scale bar 5 cm (photo by E. Pranck_enait_e)
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Fig. 11 Pots typical of Brushed Pottery Culture, found in L1 with a brushed surface; scale bar 2 cm (photo by E. Pranck_enait_e)
grounded on a certainly skewed present day understanding. However, to analyse the motives that lay behind the construction of lake settlements one has to disregard the preconception that life in wetlands or above water is ‘‘abnormal’’ and ‘‘uncomfortable’’. It is probable that life in such conditions was not ‘‘peculiar’’ for the people in the past, as ethnographic data also show. In some of the earliest literature, Masurian lake settlements were interpreted as fortified places, and it was thought that together with land settlements they formed a habitable and defensive complex (Gackowski 1995, 1998, 2000; Pydyn 2007). In the latest research it is, however, suggested, that the reasons for the establishment of lake settlements should be sought rather in the cultural sphere, for social or/and religious reasons (Pydyn and Gackowski 2011). If we look at the context of L1 and L2 during the period in discussion, around 600 cal BC, the surroundings were not densely occupied. The closest settlements, unfortified settlements in open ground and hill forts, are recorded at a distance of 10–12 km from Luokesa. Why the people chose to settle by the lake shore and not build a hill fort is not clear. Hill forts were widespread during the period discussed here, and there were also places nearby with steep slopes suitable for such a type of settlement. Possible relationships of hill forts and open settlements with lake settlements have not yet been confirmed. According to the data obtained from L1, defensive objectives of building the site by the lakeshore were not of high priority. The wooden fences surrounding the site were not very solid and strong although their height and construction remains unclear. The average diameter of the timbers is only 9 cm and the distance between the vertical
poles is 1–2 m. Some curved branches (1–2 cm diameter) were found in the excavated area which covered the inner fence, and these may have been used to form fences. Most probably, therefore, wooden fences were arranged to prevent livestock from escaping (Pranck_enait_e 2012). Also, there are two natural islands in the lake, which could have provided more safety if this had been necessary for the inhabitants. The reason for the abandonment of L1 probably did not lie in a rise of the water level at the site (Pollmann 2014). Therefore we think that the abandonment of the dwelling was a conscious decision made by its inhabitants to leave the site and move to another place. The possibility that the inhabitants left the site because of a fire cannot be proven, because only a small part of the site has been excavated so far.
Conclusions The LBA–EIA lake settlements of the southeastern Baltic region are so far the only such sites in the entire northeastern part of Europe. It is, however, likely that this is a research gap, as lake settlements are poorly investigated in comparison to dry land settlements. Their discovery and investigation require specific methods like underwater archaeology, developed mainly in the circum–alpine region. Until 2000, therefore, only lake settlements built on the artificially constructed wooden platforms in the Masurian region of Poland were known from the LBA–EIA transition period in the region. It was only thanks to the discovery of lake settlements in Lake Luokesa in Lithuania and in central Poland that the possibility arose to revise the
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information that had been previously accumulated. The material from the lake settlements and their economy does not display any differences from the other types of sites within the same cultural group. The organic artefacts found in the lake settlements however complement the existing material from the sites with new data, which enables us to more accurately reconstruct the mode of living. Our investigations allowed us to reconstruct reliably the type of lake settlements at Luokesa, as well as the nature of the economy and husbandry activities there. The living houses of L1 were erected on wooden piles (or a possible platform). L1 was inhabited by pastoralists and farmers who grew cultivated plants and put small ruminants out to pasture in the surrounding land. There is no indication of a specific purpose or unusual function of the site. The inhabitants made full use of the surrounding land and food resources. Imported materials and the use of bronze show that they were not isolated from surrounding settlements. The possibility that the construction of L1 and L2 could have been solely for defensive purposes can be rejected. Due to the nature of the construction of the dwellings, the most plausible interpretation is that they were simple pile structures built on soft ground, a process that requires little time. The choice of location may have rather been determined by social factors, which, so far, are impossible to ascertain by referring to material data. The Luokesa lake settlements are some of the most thoroughly investigated sites in the region. These investigations have allowed us to improve specific methods of investigation and have opened opportunities for wider interpretations of the material. Acknowledgements The author thanks the entire Luokesa lake settlement underwater excavation group—M. Kvedaravicˇius, Z. Baubonis, R. Kraniauskas, G. Motuzait_e-Matuzevicˇiu¯t_e—for providing the materials presented in the article. This article was prepared during a postdoctoral fellowship funded by the European Union Structural Funds project ‘‘Postdoctoral Fellowship Implementation in Lithuania’’. I also thank the international part of the team, especially the scientific workers at IPAS, Basel University, for performing the interdisciplinary research—B. Pollmann, K. Ismail-Meyer, A. HeitzWeniger, as well as N. Bleicher from the Dendrochronology Lab in Zu¨rich. Also, I would like to express my great and sincere gratitude to S. Jacomet for coordinating the research and editing the manuscript. A part of the research was funded by Swiss National Foundation Project Number NF K-13K1-117893.
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