Environ Monit Assess (2012) 184:4903–4919 DOI 10.1007/s10661-011-2311-4

Natural resources assessment and their utilization Analyses from a Himalayan state Sanjay Kr. Uniyal & Rakesh D. Singh

Received: 24 August 2010 / Accepted: 24 August 2011 / Published online: 8 September 2011 # Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract The present paper quantifies and reviews the natural resource use in the Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh (HP). Twenty-five percent of the geographical area of HP is under forests and harbour ca. 3,400 plant species. The available bioresources not only support the livelihood of nearly 6 million people but also fulfill the forage requirement of 5.2 million livestock. Thus, dependence on bioresources is manifold. Based on field surveys to different localities of HP and analyses of published information, two types of resource use patterns have been identified. One, the direct use of forest resources which is represented by extraction of timber, fuelwood and fodder; and the second represents indirect resource use from the forest that is represented by activities related to agriculture, tourism and industry. Amongst the direct resource use, annual timber requirement of the local people works out to be 310,063 m3. On the other hand, annual fuelwood and fodder requirement of local people is to the tune of 3,646,348.8 and 10,294,116.5 tons, respectively. Extraction of fodder therefore appears to be one of the main reasons for forest degradation in HP as opposed to timber and fuelwood extraction. However, compared to direct resource use, indirect resource use and pressures have S. K. Uniyal (*) : R. D. Singh Biodiversity Division, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, CSIR, Post Box 6, Palampur 176061, HP, India e-mail: [email protected]

far more pronounced effect on the forests. Of the indirect pressures, shifts in agriculture patterns and increased tourism seem to be the most prominent. Keywords Conservation . Forest . Himachal Pradesh . Himalaya . Resource use

Introduction Himalaya, the world’s youngest and the most fragile mountain range, represents a unique eco-region, rich in natural resources. Forests represent the most important amongst them. The evolution of the Himalaya, innumerable glaciations and continued upliftment, played a major role in the distribution of forests and enrichment of diversity in the Himalaya (Vishnu-Mittre 1984; Valdiya 1999). Covering an area of about 500,000 km2, the Indian Himalayan region including the north-eastern states is spread over 12 Indian states (Fig. 1; Nandy and Rao 2001). Himachal Pradesh (HP), located between 30°22′N to 33°12′N and 75°47′E to 79°04′E in the western Himalayan region, is one of the largest states of the Himalayan region. The wide altitudinal gradient (350–6,975 m asl), coupled with local variations, such as heavy rainfall in the southern parts of the state and arid conditions in northern part of the state, has resulted in peculiar vegetation communities and floral assemblages representing the west Himalayan and trans Himalayan characteristics. These forests not

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Environ Monit Assess (2012) 184:4903–4919

Fig. 1 The Indian Himalaya, area with “2” represents the state of Himachal Pradesh (source: Nandy and Rao 2001)

only provide habitat for the wild fauna but also support the livelihood of its inhabitants. However, increasing developmental activities and changing land-use patterns have put extra pressure on the forest resources. Hence, recently concerns have been raised regarding their degradation (Singh 2005; Ramakrishnan 2007). In this report, information on the status of forest, pressures they undergo, changing land-use patterns and their impact on forests are discussed.

Available forest resources, their distribution and current status Of the state’s total land area of 55,673 km2, 14,369 km2 is under forest which amounts to ca. 25%. It is higher than the average estimates for India (21%). However, when compared to few other Himalayan states, the forest cover in HP is very low (FSI 2005). The distribution of these forests was recently mapped using remote sensing and GIS, and a total of 20 different vegetation types have been identified in the state (Table 1) (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003). Amongst these, alpine meadows represent the climatic climax grassland in the Himalaya and cover maximum area (9.6%) (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003). The alpine areas are the treasure house of many rare,

medicinal and economically important plant species such as Aconitum heterophyllum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Jurinea dolomiaea and Rheum australe. Though not much information is available on the population status of medicinal plants, few studies have raised concerns over the declining population of these plants in the wild (Kala 2005; Uniyal et al. 2006a, b). These plants are also used by the local people as medicines. The alpine scrub vegetation in the state occupies 3.8% of the area (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003). Two important species of the scrub vegetation are Hippophae rhamnoides and Ephedra gerardiana. Hippophae rhamnoides occupies 0.5% area in the state and dominates the trans-Himalayan regions. The importance and extraction of Hippophae rhamnoides has increased in recent times. It is believed that more than 200 products of this plant are available in the market. Due to increasing demands, the price of Hippophae fruits has doubled (from Rs. 10 earlier to Rs. 20 per kg now). Regeneration of Hippophae in nature takes place through seeds. And since fruits are the traded part, recruitment of this plant has been adversely affected (Roy et al. 2001). Another important constituent of the alpine scrub vegetation in the trans-Himalayan region is Ephedra gerardiana. It occupies 0.2% of the state’s area and is an important herb used in many medicines.

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Table 1 Vegetation communities and their area Land-use types

Area (km2)

Alpine meadow

5,346.21

9.60

Alpine scrub

2,086.92

3.80

Betula/Rhododendron

Percent of total geographical area

455.09

0.80

Chilgoza

76.98

0.10

Chir pine

2,005.52

3.60

Blue pine

2,193.60

3.90

Deodar

2,153.35

3.90

Dry deciduous

26.78

0.10

Ephedra

81.97

0.20

Hippophae

258.43

0.50

Juniper

208.41

0.40

Mixed conifer

3,226.72

5.80

Moist deciduous

1,573.62

2.80

879.38

1.60

24.66

0.04

306.97

0.55

2,152.55

3.87

408.83

0.73

2,154.36

3.87

Oak Riverine Sal Scrub Temperate broadleaved Temperate grassland Temperate scrub

321.64

0.58

Non-forest

29,731.40

53.36

Total

55,673.39

100

Source: Chandrasekhar et al. (2003)

It has ephedrine and pseudo-ephedrine alkaloids, which are cardiac stimulants (Porwal et al. 2003). Excessive exploitation of the entire plant primarily for medicines has led to the degradation of this species. The alpine scrub and Betula–Rhododendron forest that together occupy 4.6% of the area (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003) support the fuelwood requirements of the trans-human communities which camp in the alpine meadows for 6 months for grazing their livestock. These high-altitude species are very slow growing, and as they form the tree line they are ecologically very important. Extraction of these scrub species for fuelwood and also as building material for temporary huts has not only led to their poor regeneration but would also result in lowering of the tree line. Cedrus deodara (deodar) represents one of the most important tree species used in construction activities. The deodar forests in HP cover 3.9% of the area and represent an economically important timber species.

Our surveys to different localities of HP (IHBT 2007) have revealed that the density of C. deodara varies from 70 to 1,470/ha with a mean of 378±79. Seedling and sapling density of C. deodara was observed to be 172±46 and 157±60, respectively (Table 2). These forests have always been heavily exploited for timber. Owing to increased tourism and construction activities, the demand for this species continues to increase. During rainy season, the floor of deodar is searched for a rare mushroom, Morchella esculenta, which fetches a price of Rs. 2,500–4,000/kg in the market. In addition to felling of deodar for timber, this has also affected the regeneration of deodar due to rampant trampling and screening of ground floor. Just like deodar, forests of Pinus wallichiana (Blue pine) occupy 3.9% of the area (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003) and represent another important timber species. They often extend up to the tree line. And across various localities of its occurrence, its density ranges from 30 to 1,700/ha. Mean tree density was found to be 338±122, while seedling and sapling density were 143±65 and 92±39, respectively. On the other hand, the oak forests, which are the climatic climax species of temperate zone and also the backbone of the Himalayan ecosystem, occupy 1.6% of the total area in HP (Chandrasekhar et al. 2003). Their importance in moisture conservation and sustaining the agro-ecosystem in Himalaya is well

Table 2 Density of some dominant tree species in HP and their regeneration pattern Species

Tree (#/ha)

Seedling (#/ha)

Sapling (#/ha)

Abies pindrow

193±50

341±195

310±226

Acacia catechu

231±59

0±0

31±20

Acer caesium

143±29

43±43

66±66

Cedrus deodara

378±79

172±46

157±60

Picea smithiana

186±46

665±410

230±100

Pinus roxburghii

653±175

166±90

45±22

Pinus gerardiana

317±52

143±65

92±39

Pinus wallichiana

338±122

285±161

132±49

Quercus floribunda

100

Quercus leucotrichophora

468±187

183±44

30

536±200

130

Quercus semecarpifolia

396±206

180±111

276±102

Shorea robusta

487±146

802±455

545±322

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documented (Pandey and Singh 1984). Three species of oaks — Quercus leucotrichophora (locally called ban), Q. floribunda (moru) and Q. semecarpifolia (kharsu) — are dominant in HP. The density of Q. leucotrichophora varies from 70/ha in mixed stands to 1,330/ha in its pure formations. Mean tree density of this species was observed to be 468±187 while the seedling and sapling density were 183±44 and 536± 200, respectively. Q. floribunda reported a density of 100/ha, with seedling and sapling density to be 30/ha and 130/ha, respectively. Q. semecarpifolia forms important component of the sub-alpine forests with a mean tree density of 396 ±206. Across various habitats, its tree density ranges from 100 to 1,180/ha. Seedling and sapling density was observed to be 180 and 276/ha, respectively. All oak species are highly rated by the local people for fuelwood and fodder. Hence, ban and moru oaks at lower altitudes, and kharsu oak at high altitudes are heavily exploited by local people on a day-to-day basis. Due to their heavy exploitation, at some places replacement of Q. leucotrichophora by Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine) has already been reported in the Himalaya (Singh et al. 1984). On the other hand, change in the growth form and lack of recruitment for kharsu oak has been reported (Singh et al. 1997). They are now the most threatened forest types of the Himalaya. Another important trees species of the temperate broadleaved forests, which occupies 0.73% of the area, is Acer caesium. It rarely forms pure forests and is usually associated with other broadleaved species. The density of Acer caesium ranges from 100 to 200/ha. The mean tree density of this species was observed to be 143±29 with a seedling and sapling density of 43±43 and 66± 66, respectively. It is an important fodder species. In contrast, Chir pine forests, which presently occupy 3.6% of the area, is an economically important species. In addition to timber, Chir pine is also exploited for resin. At different locations, the density of Chir pine varies from 100 to 1,150/ha with a mean of 653±175. Its seedling and sapling density has been recorded to be 166±90/ha and 45±22/ha, respectively. Another Pinus species, Pinus gerardiana, commonly referred to as “Chilgoza pine,” occupies the minimum forest area (0.1%). The fruits of this plant are relished as a dry fruit and have high demand in the market. It is generally found growing in the cold arid regions of the state mainly in Kinnaur and Chamba districts. Amongst the various sites of its occurrence, density of Pinus

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gerardiana ranges between 130 and 500/ha. Its mean tree density was recorded to be 317±52. Seedling and sapling density were found to be 143±65 and 92±39, respectively. This species has a very limited distribution and is mainly exploited for fruits. Mixed conifer forests that occupy 5.8% of the area are mainly composed of Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana. Mean tree density of Abies pindrow was found to be 193 ± 50 while that of Picea smithiana was 186±46. Seedling and sapling density for Abies pindrow was observed to be 341±195 and 310±226, respectively. Seedling and sapling density for Picea smithiana was 665±410 and 230±100, respectively. These tree species are also used by local people as building material for temporary huts and houses. The low altitude forests in the state are dominated by Shorea robusta (sal) that occupies 0.55% area. Sal represents an important timber and fodder species of the lowland forests. Across various localities of its occurrence, density of sal varies from 100 to 760/ha with a mean of 487±146. The regeneration of this species is comparatively good, which may be attributed to its limited distribution and extraction. The mean seedling and sapling density was 802±455 and 545± 322, respectively. The dry deciduous forests of HP are dominated by Acacia catechu (cutch). The density of Acacia catechu varies from 70/ha in areas where it is a co-dominant species to 500/ha in areas where it dominates the forest stands. An average of 231±59/ha is recorded for HP. The regeneration potential of this species is poor, with hardly any seedlings, and a sapling density of 31/ha. The heart wood of the tree yields “cutch” of industrial importance. Recently, due to increased demands, illegal extraction of this species has increased considerably (Noatay 2001). The different forests types of HP that occur in diverse ecological zones support a diversity of plants. It is known that the flora of HP comprises ca. 3,400 species (Chowdhery and Wadhwa 1984; Chowdhery 1999). This represents almost 42% of the total flowering plants of the Indian Himalayan region and 19% of the flowering plants of India (Singh and Hajra 1996). Asteraceae, with more than 328 species, is the largest family followed by Poaceae (321 species) and Leguminosae (278 species). Out of the total 1,038 genera found in HP, Carex is the most dominant genera (48 species) followed by Polygonum (37 species) and Poa (33 species). Recently, some new additions have

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been made to the flora of HP (Brijlal et al. 2006; Sharma and Uniyal 2009), and it is therefore expected that the species richness of the state is close to 4,000. Out of the total flowering plants reported from HP, more than 500 plants are believed to be of medicinal importance (Chauhan 1999) and are used by local inhabitants for curing various ailments ranging from simple stomach ache to complicated male and female disorders. These rich forests and diversity of bioresources available in the state not only support the livelihood of the inhabitants but also form an important resource base for various industries. Thus, the dependence on the forest resources is manifold.

Human dependence Nearly 39,628,311 people inhabit the Indian Himalayan region, of which 6,077,248 reside in the state of HP (Nandy and Rao 2001). With continuously increasing population, population density in the state has increased from 93 persons/km2 in 1991 to 109 persons/km2 in 2001 (Nandy and Rao 2001). Majority of the people are rural (92%) and are totally dependent on the surrounding forests (Holden and Sankhayan 1998). Owing to comparatively low forest cover and high rural population, dependence on forest resources is high. Timber, fuelwood and fodder are the most important resources that are extracted from the forest. In addition, bamboo, leaf litter and various Non-Wood Forest Produce (NWFP) are also collected. Indirect dependence on forest resources as a result of increasing

Timber Timber forms an important resource for both the local people and the industry, which is extracted from the forests. It has been reported that from 1991 to 1998 a total of 3,218,179 m3 of timber was extracted from the forests of HP, which accounted for 14% of the total timber that was extracted from India during the same period (Chopra et al. 2001). It can be seen (Fig. 2) that during 1991 to 1998, when timber extraction as a whole from India was decreasing, it was increasing in the state of HP. C. deodara has been the main target species. From Bara Bhangal area of HP alone, more than 15,000 trees were harvested during 1980–1985 with permission of 6,000 more trees to be harvested later, mainly for industrial purposes (Anon. 1985). The timber requirements of the local people vary from 0.19 to 0.32 m 3 household−1 year−1. The average timber requirement per household has been worked out to be 0.25 m3 household−1 year−1, and this need is supplied by the forests (Singh 1995). Although timber extraction for trade was banned earlier, timber distribution rights of the local people were maintained till 2006. Based on this, local people were allowed to cut trees for their bonafide use after paying a token amount. Considering the ill impacts of timber harvesting, coupled with increasing number of households due to of the rise of nuclear families in place of joint families, the court has imposed a stay on green felling (Ghosh 2006b).

4500000 4000000

Timber extraction (Cu m)

Fig. 2 Quantity of timber extracted from Himachal Pradesh vis-a-vis India (source: Chopra et al. 2001)

tourism, developmental activities and industries has also increased.

India 3500000

HP 3000000 2500000 2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98

Year

4908

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Since roots of this plant are used for fuel, the entire plant is dug out (Uniyal et al. 2003). The plants of this region are very slow growing and take hundreds of year to grow and mature (Korner 1999). Thus, uprooting of an entire plant in the trans-Himalayan region often leads to desertification. The demand for fuelwood is ever-increasing. Today, the extraction of fuelwood is three times that reported for 2003 (HP Forest department 2006), and how long this demand can be met by the forests is now being questioned. The increasing population and continual removal of resources in excess will certainly lead to their depletion and degradation until practical alternates are provided to the local people.

Fuelwood Another important resource extracted from the forests is fuelwood. The fuelwood extraction pattern varies according to location, economy and climate of the area. The dependency of rural people on fuelwood is high compared to urban people. For rural HP hills and plains, per capita fuelwood consumption is 689 and 550 kg, respectively, and for urban it is 440 kg. This is higher than the average annual per capita fuelwood consumption of 424 and 144 kg in forested and nonforested areas of the country, respectively (Fig. 3; Rai and Chakrabarti 1996). In the cold temperate areas of Solan, average per capita annual fuelwood consumption has been reported to be 780 kg whereas for Shimla it has been reported to be 980 kg (Prasad et al. 2001). In low-altitude villages fuelwood consumption is between 400 and 500 kg. Wood contributes 84% to the fuel requirement and majority of it (>60%) is supplied by the natural forests (Singh and Sikka 1994). In lower altitudes, sal (Shorea robusta) forms the important fuelwood species while at higher altitudes dependence on oak for fuelwood is greater. Juniperus spp. forms an important fuelwood component in the trans-Himalayan regions of the state. Hippophae rhamnoides, one of the few woody species of the trans-Himalayan region, is also extracted for fuelwood. In some parts of the Indian trans-Himalayan region, in the absence of alternate fuelwood resources, even small scrubs such as Eurotia ceratoides are extracted for fuel.

Livestock rearing is another important forest-based activity of the people of the Himalayan region. Livestock is mainly kept for milk, wool, meat and draught power. About 5.2 million livestock graze and browse on the available natural resources (Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries 2003). The average fodder requirement per household in the state has been reported to be 8.3 tons/year, and majority of this is supplied by the forests (Singh 1995). It has been estimated that in the Himalaya majority of the fodder is extracted from forests and only 37% is derived from agricultural system, pastures and degraded lands (Singh et al. 1998). The eco-development area of Great

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200

States

West Bengal

Uttaranchal

Tripura

Sikkim

Rajasthan

Nagaland

Mizoram

Meghalaya

Manipur

Maharashtra

Madhya Pradesh

Karnataka

Jammu & Kashmir'

Himachal Pradesh

Bihar

Assam

Arunachal Pradesh

0 Andhra Pradesh

per capita fuelwood consumption (kg)

Fig. 3 Per capita fuelwood consumption of different states in India (source: Rai and Chakrabarti 1996)

Fodder

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Himalayan National Park has shown an increase of 85% in the fodder consumption between 1961 and 1991 as a result of increase in livestock population (Naithani and Mathur 2004). Repeated lopping and cutting of many important fodder species such as Quercus spp., Celtis australis, Grewia optiva, and Acer spp. has led to a decline in their availability in many other parts of Himalaya (Awasthi et al. 2003), and this seems to be happening also in HP. Most of the forests in the vicinity of the villages are now open, and trees represent pole formations due to repeated lopping for fodder. Various transhumant communities such as Gaddis and Gujjars also inhabit the state. They mainly rear livestock and follow seasonal migration. During summer months (June to September), these communities camp in the alpine zone of the state with their livestock and during winter season they return to winter grazing grounds at lower altitudes. Nearly 100,000 Gaddis inhabit the area and cover more than 300 km each side during seasonal migration with their livestock feeding on the surrounding resources (Saberwal 1996). At present, 85% of the forest land in HP is subjected to grazing and the regeneration of important tree species has been reported to be only 10% in these areas (Dhadwal 2005). This leads to loss of recruitment, decline in the population of preferred species, and formation of open canopy forests. Health care The interior areas of the state are devoid of modern medical facilities, and hence dependency on medicinal plants is very high. The importance of plants as medicine can be easily understood from the following local saying which is very popular in the state: “Bana, basuti te bare jethi houan thethi manu kian more,” meaning a man cannot die of disease in an area where Vitex negundo (bana), Adhatoda vasica (basuti) and Acorus calamus (bare) are found, provided that he knows how to use them (Singh and Kumar 2000). As many as 500 different plants are used by the local people for curing various ailments (Chauhan 1999; Singh and Kumar 2000). In the lower altitude regions of HP, commonly used plant species include Emblica officinalis, Rumex hastatus, Cassia fistula, Murraya koenigii, Terminalia belerica and Boerhaavia diffusa. At higher altitudes, the commonly used plants species are Aconitum heterophyllum, Rheum australe, Picro-

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rhiza kurrooa, Dactylorhiza hatagirea and Saussurea costus. Many plant species such as Angelica glauca and Carum carvi are also used as spice in addition to medicinal uses. Gaddis use more than 400 plant species in their day-to-day life as medicaments (Singh and Kumar 2000). Similarly, tribal populations of Lahaul–Spiti have been reported to use more than 125 plant species in their daily life (Sood et al. 2001). Some of these plants are used for curing multiple diseases and hence their importance increases manifold (Uniyal, Sharma and Jamwal 2011; Singh and Brijlal 2008). Aside from curing human ailments, local people also use plants for veterinary purposes (Kanwar and Yadav 2005; Singh and Misri 2006). With renewed interest in herbal based products, demand for medicinal plants has increased and illegal extraction has grown. Agriculture Besides their direct dependence on forest, many activities, such as agriculture, are also dependant on the forest biomass. It has been estimated that for every unit produced in farms, ca. 14 units are required from the forest (Pandey and Singh 1984). Majority of the people in HP are rural and agriculture is their main occupation. Wheat, maize and paddy are the principal agricultural crops. In the trans-Himalayan regions of the state, barley is the main crop. Recently, cultivation of pea has also increased in the state. The net sown area of HP is ca. 573,000 ha (17% of the total geographical area), of which 83% is rainfed. In order to cater to the needs of increasing population, the area under cultivation is also increasing. Interest for cash earning crops such as potato, pea, soybean and French beans has led to cultivation of new fields at the cost of natural vegetation. This has increased pressures on the surrounding forests. In Mandi district of HP alone, an increase of 10,000 ha (from 85,000 ha in 1970 to 95,000 ha in 1995) in cultivated areas has been reported (Holden and Sankhayan 1998). The increased cultivation of cash crops has resulted in the abandonment of many traditional crops from the agricultural calendar. In Khoksar area of HP, traditional crops now occupy only 3.7% of the total area, whereas areas under cash crop have gone up to 95% (Kuniyal et al. 2004). Similarly, the annual production of green pea in Kibber has been reported to be 2,587 kg/household,

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which is almost double than the 1,294 kg/household reported for barley (Mishra 2000). Moreover, the transformation in agriculture sector has also led to an increase in the use of chemical fertilizer and insecticides. It has been estimated that nowadays farmers use 295–318 kg/ha of chemical fertilizers. On the other hand, in the traditional mixed farming system only 9 kg/ha of chemical fertilizers were used. Similarly, expenditure on insecticides and pesticides has been reported to be Rs. 2,689 and Rs. 422/ha, respectively, in fruit-based and vegetablebased farming systems of HP, whereas in the traditional farming the expenditure was only Rs. 3/ha (Bhati and Zingel 1997). It has not only degraded the quality of soil but also affected the fodder availability as traditional crops had higher byproduct availability that served as good fodder. Also, the packaging material for cash/horticulture crops is obtained from the forests. In HP, the demand for wood for fruit and vegetable packing boxes in 1981 was 2 lakh m3, which has increased manifold. On the other hand, productivity of wood fit for packing boxes has been reported to be only 1.2 lakh m3 (Swarup and Sikka 1983). This skewed nature of demand and supply jeopardizes the sustainability of these forests. Tourism Another indirect yet rapidly increasing pressure on the forest resources has come up in the form of tourism. The number of tourists visiting the area has increased in recent times. Compared to 1999, when the reported tourist number was 4.44 million, presently more than 6.5 million tourists visit the state annually (Anon. 2006). In Kullu, a 241% increase in the number of tourists has been reported during the period 1993–2001 (Shah and Mazari 2007). Similarly, after opening up of many restricted areas to international tourists, the interior areas such as Spiti have seen a sudden boom in the number of tourists. Up to US$637 net profit has been reported by hotel owners from this area from a single tourist season (Mishra 2000). This heavy influx of tourist during the peak season has led to an increased number of vehicles. About 750 vehicles/day, mostly used by/for tourists, have been reported to be plying to Rohtang pass, which otherwise is closed during winter due to heavy snow (Kuniyal et al. 2003). Although direct resource use by tourists is very low, the indirect impact of tourism is very high. To

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accommodate the increased number of tourists, the number of hotels has increased. In Kullu and Manali (the famous hill stations of HP) alone, a 63.8% increase in the number of hotels has been reported during 1993–1994 to 2000–2001. This has increased the demand for timber. It has been estimated that, on an average, construction of a new hotel in Kullu requires 13.6 m3 of timber while for Manali the estimates are even higher, 45.9 m3 (Kuniyal et al. 2003). In many parts of Himalaya, increase in fuel wood consumption by local restaurant owners has been reported during peak tourist seasons. A study of the Ghorepani in the Annapurna region of Nepal revealed that fuelwood requirement of a subsisting household averaged only 22 kg/day, while the demands of a tourist lodge was as high as 220 kg/day (Shah et al. 2000). The situation in HP seems to be no different. In Manali, the number of tourists has increased manifold (Anon. 2005a), and so has extraction of resources from forests. Deforestation linked to fuelwood requirements for tourism has made life harder for the village women in Manali. These days, for collection of fuelwood, fodder and litter, women have to travel farther than ever before (Shah et al. 2000). Increasing demands has led to exploitation of forests, which until late were relatively undisturbed because of their distance. These relatively undisturbed forests which serve as refuge for the dwindling wildlife of the state are now coming under severe pressure. Recently, plans for a “ski village” in HP have received much attention. It is worth mentioning that proposed ski village, covering an area of 50 acres, would have 700 seven-star rooms, 300 villas, 2,420 food court-type restaurants seats and a handicraft market (Handique 2005). This ski village is planned in the ecologically sensitive temperate and sub-alpine zones of Kullu in HP. What impacts will it have is a matter of research. Industry and developmental projects In addition to local dependence on the forests resources, various industries are also dependant on the natural resources. The number of such factories has seen a sharp increase (Fig. 4). Some industries such as catechu industry, bamboo industry, resin industry, and ayurvedic industries use natural resources

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4911 upto 1982-83 upto 2000-01

2400

Number

2000 1600 1200 800 400 0 Sawmills/Basket making

Catechu

Resin/Turpentine

Industry

Fig. 4 Number of different industrial units in Himachal Pradesh

directly as raw materials. The depleting resources and increasing demands have pushed many species on the verge of extinction. It has been reported that 28,600 stumps of C. deodara are used by cedar oil industries in HP (Kamal and Kondle 2006). Similarly, chirpine forests of HP yielded 73,000 quintals of resin (Gouri et al. 2004). Resource use by the catechu industry is also very high. With the number of catechu industries increasing from 1 in 1982–1983 to 21 in 2000–2001, the demands have increased manifold. With average conservative estimates of heart wood consumption per factory to be in the range of 2.0–3.0 quintals/day (personal observation), 42.0–63.0 quintals/day of Acacia catechu is required by these 21 industries. For Acacia catechu, it has been reported that total biomass (above and below ground) ranges from 87.67 to 550.32 kg/tree (Thakur et al. 2005). While trees are primarily harvested from private land for cutch, the demand for this species has spurred up and hence illegal extraction from wild is now not uncommon. Recently, many confiscations have been done in this regard, and a large amount of Acacia catechu wood has been recovered. Additionally, the regeneration of the tree was found to be very poor in the wild; furthermore, infection of the tree by members of the genus Bruchidius across its entire distributional range is a matter of great concern (Chandel et al. 2005). In addition, there are 15 Ayurvedic and 52 dhoop factories in the state, which also use the medicinal and aromatic plants as raw materials (Kamal and Kondle 2006). Since most of the highvalue medicinal plants are presently not cultivated, the extraction pressure on them is very high. The state contributes heavily to the trade in medicinal

plants and nearly 130 species are in heavy demand (Badola and Pal 2003). In 1995–2000, officially a total of 1,401.5 tons of different medicinal plants were traded, which fetched a total of Rs. 70,579,000 (HP Forest Department 2002). However, majority of the trade in medicinal plant is illegal, for which information is not available. Therefore, the actual number is expected to be very high. Judicious use of resources for self-use has always been permitted and has never posed a serious threat to their population. However, overexploitation of these plants primarily for trade has threatened the survival of many plant species (Ved et al. 2003). Quantitative information on the population status of these plants is not available from the state as a whole. However, whatever little information is available suggests that the population is very scarce while the extraction pressure is very high. It has been estimated that medicinal plant trade from eco-development area of Great Himalayan National Park amounts to Rs. 112 lakhs/year, and about 70% of the 1,600 households in the eco-development area is involved in collection of plants (Tandon 1997). In many Himalayan areas, more than 50% of the annual household income is a result of medicinal plant trade (Edwards 1996). Unscientific harvesting and overexploitation for greater economic returns is the main reason for the dwindling population of the medicinal plants (Uniyal, Rawat and Uniyal 2011). Unless proper conservation and management measure are set up, these plants will soon be extinct from the state. Other industries and developmental projects have led to diversion of forest land and even de-notification of some protected areas (Ghosh 2006b). It has been estimated that in Majathal Wildlife Sanctuary, the fate of 44,000 trees is at stake (Ghosh 2006a). HP has 28 hydro-electric projects currently operating, 11 under construction and almost 26 projects are under investigation (Himachal Pradesh 2002). Since 66% of the state land is under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department (HP Forest Department 2006), most of the developmental projects would pressurize the forest land. Although these industries may not directly use forest resources, the secondary impacts of these projects are very high. A large number of manpower is required for such developmental projects; migration of labour in huge numbers leads to excessive resource extraction, thus disturbing the ecology of the region with augmented pressures on forests.

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Discussion Degradation of forests is a global phenomenon and the Himalaya is no exception. However, the fragility and sensitivity of this region has compound effects. Himalaya plays a major role in shaping the climatic regime of India (Valdiya 1999). It also has an important role in the livelihood of lowland people, as most of the important rivers of India have their origin in the Himalaya (Wadia 1999). The rich forests of Himalaya provide majority of the products and services, both directly and indirectly, on which depends the livelihood of its inhabitants. Extraction of timber, fuelwood, fodder and NWFP has been cited as the important reason for forest degradation in the Himalaya. The average household timber requirement of the local people, which in the case of HP is 0.25 m3/year (Singh 1995), is comparable to that in other Himalayan regions. In Nepal and eastern Himalaya, timber requirement is 2.5–4.2 m3/hh/15–20 years, and construction of a new house with two rooms requires 5–7 m3/hh/20– 30 years (Sundriyal and Sharma 1996; Mahat et al. 1986, 1987). In Nujiang, China, the timber requirement for constructing a new house is reported to be 11 m3, while for a Tibetan log house, the figure is even higher at 22 m3, due to the severe winters in the area (Xu and Wilkes 2004). With the number of households in HP documented to be 1,240,255 (Himachal Pradesh 2002), annually ca. 310,063 m3 wood is required by the residents of the state. With annual estimates of 696,800 m3 wood production from the forests (HP Forest Department 2006), this extraction hardly seems to pose a serious threat to the local forests. On the other hand, majority of the timber extracted from Himalaya as also from HP has been for lowland development and industrialization (Tucker 1987). Many areas of HP such as the Bara Bhangal have been denuded in the past, from where thousands of deodar trees have been felled to supply timber to lowland areas (Anon. 1985). Thus, deforestation of large areas for timber has been primarily for export to other areas rather than for selfconsumption by the local people. With increasing extraction of timber from the state, which was reported to be 98,974 m3 in 2004–2005, almost 43,305 m3 higher than that of 2003–2004 (HP Forest Department 2006), degradation of forests has been observed. The felling of trees for timber has serious ecological implications. Considering the ill effects of timber

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extraction, this has now been banned and timber extraction has been checked (Ghosh 2006b). Fuelwood and fodder are extracted by local residents to sustain their livelihood. Due to diverse climatic conditions and socio-economic status, there is spatio-temporal pattern of fuelwood extraction. Quantity of fuelwood extracted is higher in winter season as compared to summer. Similarly, the high altitude regions of the state experience heavy snowfall and hence are very cold. The consumption of fuelwood by residents at high altitudes is therefore comparatively very high. While per capita consumption in low altitude areas is ca. 0.5 tons/year, in the high altitude areas it is almost double (Prasad et al. 2001). Similar trends have been observed in other Asian countries. Along the Pakistan border, the per capita fuelwood consumption level in high-altitude villages (1,700– 2,000 m) was found to be 3.76 kg/day while in lower altitude villages (1,000–1,500 m) it was 2.19 kg/day (Shaheen et al. 2011). The per capita fuelwood consumption in Kampong Thom province of Cambodia ranged between 176 and 238 kg/year (Topa et al. 2004). Comparable estimates of fuelwood dependence are available from China (Chen et al. 2006) and Philippines (Bensel and Remedio 1995). Donovan (1981) estimated per capita fuelwood consumption in south and southeast Asian countries to range between 1.7 and 2.7 kg/day. At present, some 25–26% of the total energy consumption in 16 Asian countries, member of the Regional Wood Energy Development Program (RWEDP), consists of biomass fuels (Koopmans 2005). In the mountains of Andes, per capita fuelwood use has been reported to be 1.8 kg/day (Maxwell 2011), while for Sierra Leone, Africa, annual household estimates of fuelwood are 4.6 tons (Amoo-Gottfried and Hall 1999). With per capita fuelwood demand in HP reported to be 0.6 tons, ca. 3,646,348.8 tons/year of fuelwood is consumed in HP. Considering the fact that 60% of this is extracted from the forests (Singh and Sikka 1994), annual fuelwood removal from the forests is to the tune of 2,187,808.8 tons and is on rise. From forests, ca. 3 times more fuelwood was extracted during 2004–2005 compared to 2003–2004 (HP Forest Department 2006). In order to minimize pressures on the forests, use of alternate fuel in form of LPG is being promoted. However, since LPG cannot keep the house warm, burning of fuelwood to keep the houses warm especially in high-altitude regions becomes necessary. Moreover, unlike wood, which is freely available from

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the surrounding forests, LPG is an economic burden on them. Because of the harsh climatic conditions and socio-economic status of the local people, dependence on fuelwood from forests remains very high. Improved chullas, therefore, appear to be a ray of hope. The efficiency of traditional chullas has been reported to be only around 10% (Kohli and Ravi 1996). On the other hand, improved chullas are far more efficient and in some areas of HP more than 40% fuelwood consumption has been reduced because of the use of improved chullas (Prasad et al. 2001). But then, again, due to the specific requirements of the people who live in the hills, improved chullas has not been so popular. It has been pointed out that smoke reduction from improved chullas has resulted in population growth of insects and loss of the preserving effects of the smoke on roof timbers. Similarly, improved chullas require split logs, whereas the traditional open hearth consumes easily available fuel resource in any shape (Sinha 2001). Improved chullas will help in reducing pressures on forests to some extent, but not to the desired level. In this aspect, judicious use of twigs and branches that come as a by-product of fodder lopping needs to be encouraged. It has been estimated that in some parts of Himalaya, almost 50% of the fuelwood demand of the local people can be met by twigs and branches that are primarily collected for fodder and are later discarded (Moench and Bandyopadhyay 1986). Thus, extraction of fuelwood to a minor extent can be controlled by providing alternatives. However, extraction of fodder for livestock remains the primary threat to forests. Lopping of trees for fodder has serious implications. In addition to open forest grazing where the cattle is left free to graze/browse in the forest, animals are also stall-fed. With average household fodder requirement reported to be 8.3 tons/year (Singh 1995) ca. 10,294,116.5 tons of fodder is annually consumed by livestock in HP. Of the total consumption, more than 60% (ca. 6,176,469.9 tons) is extracted from the forests while the rest is obtained from other sources such as agricultural by products (Singh et al. 1998). Again, due to the free availability of fodder, purchase of feed and cakes for livestock is only limited to well-off families. With changing land-use practices, the availability of agricultural by-products has declined, whereas the livestock population has increased. Cattle are mainly kept for manure and draught power. The yield of milk is very poor, and in fact had it not been for the free availability of fodder, substantial

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reduction in cattle population would have been noted. It is high time that locally adapted selected breeds of cattle are maintained. Associated impacts of grazing by livestock can be discussed and debated, but one thing that stands out is that fodder requirement for them are obtained from the forests. Thus, annual fodder extraction (6,176,469.9 tons/year) is very high when compared to annual fuelwood extraction (2,187,808.8 tons/year) and annual timber extraction (310,063 m3/year) in HP. Almost similar estimates of 8.51 tons household−1 year−1 fodder requirement in Ayubia National Park of Pakistan has been reported (Aumeeruddy et al. 2004). Amongst the direct consumptive pressures on the forests, fodder extraction therefore appears to be one of the primary reasons of forest degradation in the Himalaya. In addition to the direct consumptive pressures on the forests, indirect impacts on the forests are very high. And in majority of cases, these indirect pressures are far more adverse. Most of the hill people, as in the case of HP, are rural, and agriculture is their main occupation. The cultivation of new agricultural fields is a cause of concern not only in HP, but is also major conservation concern in many other parts of the world (Geist and Lambin 2002; Grau et al. 2005). Area under cash crops such as soybean has doubled in just the last 30 years worldwide (FAO 2002), to which Himalaya and Himachal are no exception (Sen et al. 2002). Intensification of agriculture is a one of the major causes of deforestation in the Philippines (Conelly 1992). Between 1972 and 2001, 588,900 ha of forests in Argentina were deforested primarily for agriculture (Grau et al. 2005). Similarly, in Saskatchewan during 1966 to 1994, 4,368 km2 of forest was lost to agriculture (Hobson et al. 2002). Cultivation of new fields on mountain slopes of western Himalaya has also been reported (Awasthi et al. 2003). On slopes, as high as 50% of the rainfall goes as runoff, and with it almost 20 tons/ha soil is lost (Sharda 2002). It has often been pointed out that soil loss from agricultural fields (330 tons/km) is comparatively higher then soil loss from forest land (207 tons/km) in the Himalayan region (Sharda 2002). Considering the rate of soil formation, which is very slow, varying from 0.25 mm/year in cold and dry environments to 1.5 mm/year in warm and humid environments (Bhattacharyya et al. 2007), this is a serious environmental problem. Furthermore, for reaping higher returns, fertilizer and pesticide use

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has increased. More than 34% increase in the use of chemicals for agriculture purposes has been reported in HP (Bhati and Zingel 1997). Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides has degraded the quality of soil and also poses health hazards. Although information pertaining to this is not available from the Himalayan region, ca. 4.2% land of India is under chemical deterioration (Sehgal and Abrol 1994). The advent of market-driven economy has resulted in changed agricultural patterns. This has led to the emergence of “permanent cultivation” in HP, as has also been observed in other parts of Himalaya (Ghimire 1994). Now the land is continuously under crop, and fallow time has reduced. Due to the marketoriented approach, cultivation of high-value cash crops has taken a sudden boom at the cost of traditional crops. In few areas, such as Lahaul–Spiti 95% of the cultivated area is now utilized for cash crops (Kuniyal et al. 2004). This has not only narrowed down the genetic diversity, but has also led to a decline in traditional knowledge and increased the chances of food insecurity. Traditional crops yielded ca. 3.5 times higher by-product than cash crops, and therefore could provide sufficient fodder for livestock (Kuniyal et al. 2004). This loss is now compensated by increased extraction from the forests. As has been pointed out, agriculture in Himalaya is directly linked to forest productivity and utilization. For long-term sustainability of mountain ecosystem, it has been estimated that the ratio between forests to cultivated land should be a minimum of 2:1 (Singh and Ahuja 2006). Thus, the recent shifts in agriculture patterns have added further pressures on the forests. This flow of energy from forests to the agricultural fields in Himalaya is being debated (Singh et al. 1991). Another constantly increasing indirect pressure has come up from the tourism industry. With more than 200% increase in the number of tourists in some parts of HP (Shah and Mazari 2007), upgradation of infrastructural facilities becomes necessary. Amongst these, increase in the number of hotels is very prominent. Compared to the average 0.25 m 3 household−1 year−1 timber requirement of local people in HP, timber requirements of the hotel industry are almost 120 times higher (Kuniyal et al. 2003). Added to this is the extra consumption of fuel to meet tourist requirements. Although this information is not available for the state, in some areas of Himalaya

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it has been reported that fuel wood requirements of small lodges are almost 10 times higher than that of the local residents (Shah et al. 2000). Deforestation linked to tourism has not only impacted the forest resources but also the local people. In Manali area of HP, women now have to travel longer distances to fetch fuelwood and fodder (Shah et al. 2000). It is worth mentioning here that almost 20–55% energy of women is used in collection of firewood alone (Bhatt and Sachan 2004). This certainly is going to put extra burden on women, as women mainly collect resources from forests in the Himalaya. Although the overall productivity of HP forests may be able to sustainably support the biomass requirements of the local people, signs of forest degradation remain evident. The forests around settlements are relatively degraded compared to forests far away from habitations. This can be attributed to the concentrated extraction of resources from few preferred areas. Moench and Bandyopadhyay (1986) have referred to this phenomenon as “Nibble effect.” They have found that despite the productivity of forests being higher than the requirements of local people, forests have been degraded due to the nibble effect. Spatial and temporal extraction of resources may help in rejuvenating the heavily lopped forests. Similarly, dependence on few species for meeting demands and the repeated lopping of preferred species has resulted in their changed growth form and forest degradation in many parts of Himalaya (Upreti et al. 1985). In HP also, signs of forest degradation are clearly evident in the form of open canopy forests. Total forest cover in the state, which declined from 14,360 km2 in 2001 to 14,353 km2 in 2003 (FSI 2001, 2003), increased to 14,369 km2 in 2005 (FSI 2005). Although the overall forest cover has shown an increase of 16 km2, the forest condition has deteriorated. During the same time, more than 1,400 km2 of dense forest was lost and converted into open forests in HP (FSI 2001, 2003, 2005). This has serious conservation implications. In recent years, as a result of increased pressures on forests and consequent decline in the availability of resources, an unprecedented increase in the human wildlife conflict has been reported (Mishra 1997). Wild animals such as Tibetan wolf and snow leopard, which are globally threatened species (Anon. 2005b), are killed in retaliation of livestock depredation by these animals. Increased competition for food amongst the livestock and wild animals has led to changed feeding habits and competitive exclusion of

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the latter (Mishra et al. 2002). As a result, the rich wildlife of the state has been marginalized. This ultimately is going to affect their population, survival and consequently the entire ecosystem.

The road ahead Thus, it can be seen that the rich bioresources of the state, which not only sustain the livelihood of the local people but also the diversity of fauna, are under continuous pressure. Two types of dependence are thus visualized on the forests: direct and indirect. Fuelwood, fodder and timber represent the first one, while agriculture, tourism and industry represent the other. The pressures attributed to indirect dependence appear to have far more effect on the status of forests compared to direct dependence. Transformation in agricultural practices seems to have the maximum effect on forests. Dependence on forest cannot be ruled out, however; managing resources and land in a way that fulfills local requirements without being degraded is the need of the hour. It is high time that conservation and management of bioresource is given fresh breath. Ecological rejuvenation and eco-restoration of barren land for increasing productivity is the need of the hour so that the pressures on forest are minimized. Since bamboo are the fastestgrowing plant species and have a high ecological amplitude, plantation of bamboo in such lands offers a good choice. Various species of bamboo such as Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Phyllostachys bambusoides, Arundinaria falcata, Thamnocalamus spathiflora, Bambusa nutans naturally grow in the forests of HP. While Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and Bambusa nutans dominate areas of lower altitude, Arundinaria falcata and Thamnocalamus spathiflora occur above 1,800 to 3,400 m asl. Across their distributional range, these species are used by the local people for multiple reasons. Bamboo plantation will not only lead to the reclamation of land, but will also reduce pressure on the forests for fuel, fibre, timber and fodder. In addition, local people use bamboo in preparing various artifacts which fetch a good price in the market. Tourists prefer to buy these artifacts as souvenirs and are ready to pay an extra penny for handicraft products. Considering the growing number of tourists in the state, this will provide the local people with much

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needed hard cash. In addition, the true potential of tourism in the state has to be realized and the concept of eco-tourism to be promoted. This will not only give respite to the natural resources but also benefit the local community directly. The practice of terrace farming in the hills helps in the soil conservation and is presently the best practice available. However, due to formation of terraces, a significant amount of land in the bunds remains unutilized. Plantation of fodder species especially grasses on these bunds would not only help in checking the soil and water runoff but would also fulfill the fodder requirements of livestock. In many areas of HP, totally lopped forests can be seen around the village periphery while good forests can be seen little away. Therefore, selective removal of species for fuelwood and fodder and localized extraction is another cause of concern. Spatial and temporal extraction of resources is to be promoted so that species get enough time for rejuvenation. Plantation of multipurpose, fast-growing species in wastelands brings hope for the protection of natural vegetation. Agroforestry interventions and short-rotation, highdensity plantations will not only help fulfill the fuelwood requirements of the local people but will also provide wood suitable for packaging. At present, compared to the availability, the demand of wood for packaging is very high. Native species with wide utility should be on the priority list for plantation. Although much has been said about medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) cultivation and its benefits, not much has been established. Majority of the medicinal plants in the market come from wild. It is well known that agriculture in Himalaya is still subsistence-based and is undergoing transformations. Cultivation of medicinal plants in farmer’s fields at the cost of the conventional crops seems to be very difficult. It is high time that integration of MAP cultivation with the traditional agricultural system should be seriously considered. Traditional agricultural crops will provide people with staple diet, while MAP can help in augmenting monetary benefits leading to reduced extraction of MAP from the wild. It is to be noted that many of the high value medicinal plants, such as Rheum australe, Podophyllum hexandrum, Jurinea dolomiaea and Arnebia benthamii, are not annuals and have a long gestation period. Such species can be tried under the joint forest management program where local people are involved in plantation and management of

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forests with the forest department, with local people having some right over the produce. In addition to medicinal plants, HP has a great scope for floriculture crops. Similarly, a multi-tier approach can be planned and researched for orchards. HP is well known for its apples and has considerable area under apple orchards. These orchards are well managed and generally do not have any under canopy crops. It should be considered whether any MAP (or any other important species) can be cultivated under the canopy of apple trees. This will certainly check the cultivation of new fields at the cost of natural vegetation, which in addition to denudation of forests has also led to loss of soil. The trans-Himalayan regions of the state such as Lahaul–Spiti, parts of Chamba and Kinnaur represent the cold desert ecosystem. These areas receive heavy sunshine with hardly any rainfall. The potential of solar energy has to be tapped, at least in these parts of the state. Kangra valley of HP is well known for its tea gardens, and the peculiar aroma of its tea has won many laurels in the past. However, the condition today seems to be grim and gloomy. Plans for revival of tea gardens in Kangra and value addition to tea products provide a ray of hope that needs to be pursued. Location specific micro-planning is therefore needed for the better management of natural resources. The world is witnessing a change towards organic farming. Agriculture in the hills has primarily been nature-based with minimal inputs from the market. However, recently the use of chemicals in agriculture has increased. It would be worth generating information on the pesticide residues. Also, since cropping systems have changed, a benefit–cost analysis of energy requirements and outputs from traditional crops vis-à-vis cash crops should be made. As most of the forest-related activities are done by women, it becomes essential that women are involved in conservation planning exercises such as participatory rural appraisal in a more pronounced and effective manner. As with a result of increased forest degradation and unavailability of fuelwood and fodder in the villages, women now have to cover longer distances to fetch these products. Up to 50% of their energy is spent in collection of forest produce, which now is further increasing, resulting to less time spent for other important household activities. Studies highlighting the nutritional status of women in Himalaya and time management therefore become essential. Women are

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the most burdened due to forest degradation, and it is their involvement that can bring sweeping changes in conservation strategies. “Chipko movement,” wherein the women of village of Lata village of western Himalaya hugged the trees to stop tree felling for timber, is a prime example of this. Protected area management in the state needs to be strengthened with true spirit, and diversification of protected area for other activities should be checked. Some of the protected areas such as Dhauladhar Wildlife Sanctuary, which is unique in terms of its location at the conjugation of west and trans-Himalaya, need to be explored and researched. Similarly, Kugti Wildlife Sanctuary, which is located in the Pir Panjal mountain range and supports a good population of the threatened brown bear and a diversity of medicinal plants, presents itself as an important candidate for future research. Moreover, awareness creation and involvement of local communities in conservation planning becomes an essential prerequisite. People in the state have been following various traditional conservation measures like maintaining sacred groves. Sacred groves are forested areas which are dedicated to a deity from where resources are not extracted except in certain situations. This not only helps in the conservation of bioresources but also in the regeneration of threatened species. Ghasnees and rakeeta are other important traditional conservation practices followed by the people in the state. In this practice, an area is closed for resource extraction except for a particular day which is fixed and resource can be removed only on this day. It is high time that traditional conservation and management practices are recognized and promoted so that overall goal of sustainable development is achieved. Acknowledgements We are thankful to the director, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, for facilities and encouragements. The faculty and staff members of the IHBT herbarium are thanked for guidance and fruitful discussions. The State Forest Department, HP, is acknowledged for the help and support. Department of Biotechnology, Government of India is thanked for the financial support.

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