PROBLEMS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN THE MIDDLE EAST NATHIRG. SARA In spite of impressive expansion in the educational systems of the Arab Middle East countries, educational research in that region is yet to mature. A number of practical and theoretical problems responsible for the slow development o f educational research are identified and discussed. Finally, the paper calls for ameliorative measures such as: the formation of voluntary groups of researchers and other educators; the establishment of a regional council for educational research with advisory, training and dissemination functions. Trotz des eindruckvollen Wachstums der Erziehungssysteme in den arabischen Liindern des Mittleren Ostens muss die plidagogische Forschung in diesem Bereich noch ausreifen. Fiir die langsame Entwicklung dieser Forschung wird eine Anzahl yon praktischen und theoretischen Griinden festgesteUt und diskutiert. Endlich fordert der Aufsatz Verbesserungsmassnahmen wie: die Bildung freiwilliger Gruppen yon Forschern und anderen Piidagogen; die Schaffung eines regionalen Rates fiir piidagogische Forschung im Dienst der Beratung, Ausbildung und Verbreitung der Ergebnisse. Malgrd le ddveloppement impressionnant des syst~mes d'dducation des pays arabes, Ia recherche en dducation dolt cependant mfirir clans cette rdgion. De nombreux probl~mes pratiques et th6oriques responsables du lent d~veloppement de la recherche en kducation ont ktd identifids et discutds. Enfin, le rapport rdclame des mesures d'amdlioration comme la formation de groupes volontaires de chercheurs et d'autres dducateurs; la crdation d'un conseil rdgional pour la recherche en dducation dotd de fonctions consultatives, formatrices et de dissdmination.
Research in education is a relatively recent development; its beginnings are found in the works of a number of European and American scholars who pioneered the field some 80 years ago. 1 In the Arab Middle East 2 scientific inquiry in education is of more recent origin. A few research reports, mostly surveys, appeared in the early 1930s, prepared by Arab scholars who were graduates of American and European universities. Those early scholars, and a number of foreign researchers and experts who served in the region, were responsible for modernizing education as well as for the gradual institutionalization of educational research in the region. Much has happened since then to support the education research effort in the region. The rise of nationalism led to the formation of independent states which set as a primary objective the eradication of illiteracy and establishment of free public education for all. Education adInternational Review of Education XXI/1975/1
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vanced rapidly. Enrolments in elementary, secondary and higher education increased by unprecendented rates and the number of colleges and universities exceeded any earlier predictions. Graduate studies in education were introduced at some of the leading universities in the region first at the American University of Beirut, then at Cairo University, and later at several other universities. Recruitment and personnel policies of such institutions started to recognize the role of research and the contributions of faculty members to it. Educational statistics and documentation bureaus were created within ministries of education of most states in the region, but the function of such bureaus remained mostly limited to collection of statistical data and its dissemination in the form of annual yearbooks or statistical bulletins. In addition, several research centers were organized within institutions of higher education; 3 a few emerged recently in conjunction with ministries of education. 4 However, research - in its more exact meaning of disciplined scientific inquiry aiming toward generation of new knowledge - has not yet to any great extent become a function of ministries of education in the Arab Middle East. Their concern is more with planning than with research. At present research in education is still mostly associated with institutions of higher education and is concentrated in a few of the universities of the region. Among the leading institutions where educational research is emphasized are: the American University of Beirut, Cairo University, and the University of Baghdad. Most of the other universities in the region are basically teaching institutions which have shown little interest in educational research although some of them offer graduate programs leading to the Master's degree in education. Although much progress has been made, there is little doubt that educational research is still inadequately supported and guided, and that serious effort is needed to pave the way for large-scale, purposeful research programs. Improvements are needed in both the quality and quantity of educational research in the Arab Middle East. PROBLEMS
The path of educational research, in fact any social science research, in the Arab Middle East is problem-ridden. Not only are researchers faced with the universal problems of educational research, there are also a host of additional problems related to developing countries, and some unique to the Arab Middle East. Two categories of problems will be discussed below: the first includes practical problems of research such as
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funding, data collection, and availability of effective dissemination systems. The second category is concerned with theoretical problems of research and deals with questions of methodology and transfer of .knowledge from one culture to another, and with the relationship between basic and applied research in a culture where research in education is just being introduced. Practical Pro b lems
One of the major problems in this category is that of allocation of resources for educational research. In spite of the impressive economic prosperity of several countries of the Arab Middle East, budgets of ministries of education and public universities provide very little support for educational research, s Though, to be fair, it may be said that this problem is not confined to the Arab Middle East. According to a recent survey, the proportion of the education budget devoted to research and development in the OECD countries never exceeds 0.5 per cent and very often is below 0.1 per cent. 6 There are many reasons for the insufficient funding of educational research in the Arab Middle East. First, economic prosperity is a recent phenomenon and governments in the region are in a state of adjustment to sudden forces of social change. They are occupied with the great problems of modernizing their countries, and will need time to develop long-range policies that recognize educational research and give it its due emphasis and to create and staff effective research organizations. Second, Arab Middle East societies are still basically traditional in spite of apparent modernization. A scientific tradition has not as yet been established, and there is a general lack of empiricism in approaching problems and dealing with them. 7 The place of research in the decisionmaking process, for example, is ambiguous and marginal. Since allocation of resources is basically a matter of priority, and since the conceived value of research is still low, educational research has received less than a favorable share of available material and human resources. Third, though recent developments seem to call for optimism, the region has been lacking in institutions and organizations that normally provide the necessary machinery for development of research policies and administration of large-scale research programs. There are no professional groups to speak of that can sponsor educational research and give it the support it requires. Teachers' organizations, for example and there are several in the region with relatively large memberships -
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are still in an embryonic stage of development and their capabilities are too modest to include guidance or sponsorship of research. It will take a number of years until professional organizations in the region can give educational research its due share of emphasis as do their counterparts in the US, for example, where the National Education Association, American Association of School Administrators, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and others devote a significant share of their energy to educational research. Further, Arab Middle East societies have not developed strong voluntary citizens organizations or business-sponsored non-proflt institutions and foundations that may provide leadership in the stimulation of interest in national and regional problems or p~ovide supportive services for researchers. In short, there are no organizations in the region that serve the cause of educational research as do such organizations as the United States Office of Education, the Ford Foundation, the Department of Education and Science in England, the Canadian Council for Research in Education, and the hundreds of other research-supportive institutions in Europe and North America. This means that the prerequisite cultural sub-structure has not yet been developed. The situation in the few private institutions in the Arab Middle East is somewhat better. Both the American University of Beirut and the American University in Cairo are strongly supportive of educational research. The American University of Beirut was the first to introduce graduate studies in education and offered the Master's degree as early as 1923. At present, approximately 40 Master's theses in education are completed each year. In addition, two research centers are actively involved in research and development work, one in the teaching of science and mathematics and the other in the teaching of English as a foreign language. Individual faculty members also pursue educational research at that University. But other private colleges and universities in the region are less active. The French-sponsored St. Joseph University in Beirut offers no programs in education. Haigazian College and Beirut University College, both in Beirut, are limited to undergraduate studies and have not developed research centers or programs; however, individual faculty members in both institutions have shown some interest in educational research. The private universities of Egypt and Saudi Arabia until recently were isolated from the mainstream of educational research. Studies in Arabic, religion and other subjects continue to be produced, but their involvement in research into education seems to be minimal. A greater commitment is needed to provide sufficient resour-
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ces, material and human, in order to support long-term and large-scale research in education in the region. A second major problem that confronts educational researchers is that of securing data. Researchers must have easy access to a great variety of basic data such as demographic statistics, enrolment figures, data on teachers and other school personnel, economic data, and so on. There is great variation from one Arab Middle East country to another in regard to the extent to which data of this kind are available and reliable. Some countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Lebanon, do not have accurate population data; others, such as Egypt and Syria, have published rather extensive, though not always reliable or complete economic, sociological and educational data. a Absence or inadequacy of basic data can limit to a great extent the areas of education that may be investigated. A second aspect of the same problem is that of reaching research populations and samples. Empirical research assumes a somewhat research-enlightened population. Researchers often need data which must come from pupils, teachers and administrators or other segments of the general population. In other words, it is necessary to secure the population's cooperation. But in a culture where research is new as a social phenomenon and the public has no understanding of its aims and value, researchers find great difficulty in overcoming their subjects' resistance and dispelling their fears and suspicions. I have found that school principals and teachers are often hesitant to answer questions or respond to questionnaires. They seem to fear that results of the particular research may be damaging to their schools or to them personally. This is further complicated by a vague feeling that research is an academic activity that has no relevance to the practice of education. There seems to be great trust in the traditional organization of education, a resistance to change, and a fear of the consequences of involvement in the facilitation of research. When researchers come recommended by the ministry of education in the particular country, teachers' suspicions seem to be especially aroused because they see a direct association between the researcher and the administrative authority of education. On the other hand, if the researcher approaches teachers and administrators on a personal basis, they are very likely to dismiss his request for data. It is even more difficult to obtain data from the general public. A number of research areas in education require researchers to go beyond school boundaries and into the community to collect data. Questionnaires are almost always useless in such studies since the majority of the
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public is illiterate or semi-literate, and hence does not possess the skills required in responding to questionnaires. 9 The only way to obtain data from such a public is through interviews. But this method has its problems since most subjects are naturally guarded against strangers asking them questions. This is a typical behavior pattern in close-knit traditional communities. The outsider - the researcher in this case - is received with great caution and will not be admitted readily into the intimate life of the group except when he is personally accepted by an intermediary who is an important member of the group. It has been found that some rapport between the interviewer and the subject is necessary. Employing the method used in ethnographic studies, the researcher can often win his subject's trust if he is introduced to him by some key figure in the community who enjoys the subject's respect and confidence. This method is especially successful in small towns and rural areas where the researcher can secure the cooperation of the rnukhtar (the village chief), or the local doctor who then introduces the interviewer to the subject and asks for cooperation. This procedure requires substantial time investment but it can facilitate the task of data collection. 1o A third aspect of the problem of obtaining data is concerned with the adequacy of libraries in the region. Advances in education are reported primarily in American and European publications. It is too ambitious for any university library in the Middle East to subscribe to the major journals and acquire sufficient books in the field - it is even more difficult to obtain back issues of journals. The difficulty stems from financial limitations as well as practical considerations. To build an adequate professional library requires vast funding, but even if funds are available, very few libraries can justify great emphasis on English-language publications unless English is the main language of instruction and enrolment in education is large enough to allow for specialization in various fields in education. The fact is, however, that most of the researchoriented universities in the region have small schools or departments of education, and none of the big universities uses English as the main language of instruction. Thus the researcher is limited in his use of reference materials and other sources that can aid in his research. Only three or four university libraries in the region may be considered adequate for research purposes. The library of Cairo University is the oldest and probably the richest. The library of the American University of Beirut which contains some 380,000 volumes and subscribes to over 5,000 periodicals '1 is also a prominent research library. The
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University of Kuwait, established only eight years ago, is rapidly developing its library which now contains over 180,000 volumes 12 but it cannot be expected to have the depth of materials that only long years of acquisition make possible. The library of the American University in Cairo reports a total of 121,574 entries. 13 The central library of the University of Baghdad may also be considered adequate for purposes of educational research. Most of the other university libraries, such as the libraries of the University of Riyadh, University of Jordan, and Basrah University, are still very small. Another problem arises from the relative isolation of researchers. Research-oriented universities, it has been pointed out, are few and geographically distant from each other. They are also small and each field of specialization in education is represented by only one person, sometimes by two. At the American University of Beirut, for example, there is only one professor in each of the following fields: educational administration, elementary education, educational psychology, and guidance and counseling. A very similar situation is found in the University of Jordan. When a researcher undertakes a particular study that requires an in-depth understanding of a field in education, he has little opportunity to discuss his research with others who share his knowledge and interests. He works without the benefit of advice, and is left to his own devices. If there are basic flaws in his thinking or if there are weaknesses in his research design, he is not very likely to know about them until it is too late, if he does at all. Finally, the researcher is further hindered by absence of effective dissemination systems in the region. Although the number of educational periodicals published in the region is somewhat large (one can identify over 20), only a few are professionally mature and have a wide circulation outside their own place of publication. Those that do maintain high professional standards devote only a small portion of their pages to research reports. An analysis of content of seven leading Arab journals show that research reports account for 2.09 to 21.02 per cent of the total contents. 14 Most researchers who desire wide exposure - and credit - attempt to publish in more established journals of excellent professional reputation. This means that they have to seek publication in American and European journals. Geographic distance, language difficulties, and other problems are real obstacles. They can discourage the researcher or reduce his productivity. In the meantime, educational journals of the region remain deprived of most of the best contributions of the region's researchers.
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These are some of the major practical problems that hinder educational research in the Arab Middle East. None of them makes research impossible, but each adds to the challenge of conducting research. Combined they account for the rather slow acceleration of the research effort in the region.
Theoretical Problems This section is concerned with problems that are related to the relevance of the research undertaken. The ultimate value of any research is determined by the relevance of its findings, and in order to guarantee that research be relevant researchers must first be aware of the methodological issues of educational research in the Arab Middle East and, second, they must develop ways to solve such problems. First, there is a problem in the transfer of knowledge between cultures. The normal process of scientific research starts with identification of a problem and formulation of hypotheses that require verification. Once a problem is identified the researcher proceeds to review the relevant literature to determine the body of knowledge upon which to draw. He may use existing theories or models, or he may rely on an established set of generalizations made available to him through the work of others. Very little research is altogether original; most research is based on a structure of knowledge that is already in existence, and researchers, generally, attempt to add some more to the present structure, or to modify it. So far the process seems not only well-established but also relatively free of inherent problems, and it is indeed so in the natural sciences. A physicist in Baghdad or Beirut can use whatever laws and models have been discovered by his British, Russian or American counterpart and his research is not endangered in any way by this practice. The same is often not true in the case of social science research. Two basic factors account for the difference, and thus the difficulty. On the one hand we find that most knowledge available for the educational researcher in the Middle East is derived from Western cultures. Such knowledge, to be readily accepted as valid in Egypt or Lebanon must first assume that behavior patterns in these countries are parallel to those characterizing Western societies. This assumption cannot be made safely since it implies great similarities in value systems, response patterns, personality structures, etc., in the Middle East and, say, the United States. Knowledge in the basic disciplines of education, therefore, must be tested for
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its relevance to the new cultural context before it can be used for further research. This can be accomplished if a systematic program of research is organized in the region, and if such a program sets as one of its objectives verification of significant generalizations, principles and models of behavior and, if necessary, their modification on the basis of cultural patterns in the Arab Middle East. Two examples are offered here to clarify this point. In a study of authoritarianism in the Middle East, Prothro and Melikian found no correlation between authoritarianism and political conservatism.IS This finding is contrary to conclusions reached by Adorno and his associates in their studies of authoritarianism in the United States. 16 In a study of teacher morale in the secondary schools of the Khartoum Metropolitan Area, Sudan, Rabih compared teacher morale of Sudanese and American teachers. Significant differences were found in nine of the ten factors of morale he studied.17 The implications of such findings are fairly obvious: that knowledge must be relevant to the new cultural context. The task of ascertaining the relevance of knowledge for the Arab Middle East does not have to be as gigantic as it may seem at the beginning. It can be made more manageable if priority is given to those aspects of knowledge that are very likely to be influenced by cultural variables. For example, the teaching of mathematics in the Arab Middle East is shifting gradually from the conventional approach to the "new math" which is based on set theory. In doing so curriculum workers and textbook writers assume that formation of set among Arab children follows patterns already identified among American children.18 Since this assumption must first be verified, priority should be given to research on set formation in the Arab Middle East before new math textbooks can be developed. It may be added that it is not a case of re-inventing the wheel since a great deal of time and effort can be saved simply by learning from the experience of Western researchers: effective research models and sophisticated research designs have already been established, and faulty approaches and dead-end experiments can be avoided. The second factor that complicates research in the social sciences lies in the desirability for the social scientist to approach the problems of his research from "within"; that is, to develop a kind of empathy, or ,erstehen as Max Weber and other German scientists explained earlier in the century, of the social phenomenon under investigation. Sorokin has carried this concept even further. He suggests that a subjective, even intuitive understanding of the particular social phenomenon is necessary
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if the social scientist is to make truthful observations: Only through direct empathy.., can one grasp the essentialnature and difference between a criminal gang and a fighting battalion; between a harmonious and a broken family. . . . The same can be said of the nature and difference of religious, scientific, aesthetic, ethical, legal, economic, technological,and other cultural value systems and their subsystems. Without the direct livingexperience of these cultural values, they will remain terra incognita for our outside observer and statistical analyst.19 But to develop this kind of understanding a social scientist must live in the particular culture long enough to integrate himself so as to become a member of the tribe. This is very difficult for a number of Arab researchers in the Middle East. The difficulty for foreign experts is obvious: they need a thorough orientation before they can be fully productive as researchers. Native Middle Easteners whose graduate studies are pursued in Europe or America face a very similar problem. Their experience outside their own culture for prolonged periods, though extremely valuable, may have adverse effects on their ability to re-enter their own cultures and develop genuine insights without first going through a process of re-adjustment. All this results in delays if not in misconstrued perceptions of social processes being investigated. There is still another problem. A logical approach to educational research requires a certain mix between pure research (which aims at generating scientific knowledge without regard to its applicability to practical situations) and applied research (which seeks to find solutions to practical problems or to develop mechanisms for improvement of practices in education). The rationale for such a mix is found in the relationship between the two kinds of research: applied research, necessarily, is tied to findings of pure research. Emphasis on applied research assumes availability of a large body of scientific knowledge from which to derive application. But, as has been implied earlier, there has not been a sufficient accumulation of research in the Arab Middle East. Educational researchers, therefore, must continue to direct a great deal of their programs toward development of an adequate base of theoretical knowledge on behavior of children and adults in situations that relate to education, and to establish basic relationships among a multiplicity of variables pertinent to Middle East culture. However, the recent development of a number of research centers is pushing educational research in the direction of applied research. This is understandable since such centers often operate under expectations requiring them to produce tangible results (materials, curricula, manuals) or to find instant solutions to pressing problems. In the absence of well-studied research
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policies and coordinating bodies to develop long-term plans, research centers inadvertently emphasize applied research to the neglect of pure research. The Unesco Institute for Education has recognized this problem and dealt with it in one of its conferences. The conference participants detected the trend emphasizing applied research as early as 1967, and discussed counter-measures that may be taken. One such measure was seen in the strengthening of university research programs since universities traditionally have shown a commitment to pure research. :° Another measure may be in providing greater aid to independent academicians to carry on their own research. University faculty members, outside established research centers, engaged in research are not pressured by budget-makers or others to justify their effort. Liaison between academicians and research centers can be strengthened to promote exchange of information and coordination of effort. STRENGTHENING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Emphasis on educational research is a basic part of the pursuit of excellence in education. Real progress in education can be brought about only through intelligent and deliberate action. The extent to which action is intelligent is determined partly by the quality and volume of research output in the region. Effort, therefore, must be directed toward the solution of problems that hinder educational research and reduce its effectiveness. Three measures are suggested below.
Formation of Voluntary Groups A good starting point would be the formation of voluntary groups organized as semi-formal discussion clubs or round-table conferences to examine more closely their own problems and to gain insights regarding the nature and direction of research organizations in each of the countries of the region. The action of such groups could stimulate interest and communicate concern to public and private bodies responsible for education or committed to its advancement. The search for new models of organizing educational research could be initiated. Formal organizations may emerge to provide leadership in setting research objectives and establishing priorities, and informing governments and other public and private bodies in regard to educational research and its role in the total education effort of the country.
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Creating a Regional Council for Educational Research An independent regional council may be formed for this purpose or a new division may be created within the UNESCORegional office for Education in the Arab Countries (formerly known as the Regional Center for the Planning and Administration of Education in the Arab Countries). Whether annexed to the existing structure of the Regional Office or created as an independent organization, the proposed council would be funded cooperatively by member states to provide a number of important services. It would have three functions: advisory, training and dissemination. It would examine research needs, formulate policies and advise on long-term educational research effort in the region. It would also provide advice to governments and education institutions in the region regarding the organization and structure of educational research and on matters of funding and implementing research programs. It could serve as a training center for research workers through internships and conferences. Another function of such an organization would be coordination of research efforts in the region to reduce unnecessary duplication and to maintain continuity through dissemination. It would publish its own education research journal. This would provide a vehicle for reporting significant research findings by researchers throughout the region, and could be published in two languages (Arabic and English) so as to reduce language problems. In addition, the council could serve as a documentation center and a clearing house by issuing a series of bulletins every year to provide basic educational statistics (enrolments, number of teachers, populations, budgets, etc.) for all countries in the region. Availability of such data would no doubt stimulate further research in the region.
Educating the Public It has been pointed out earlier that the nature and aims of educational research are not well understood by vast segments of the populations of the region. For educational research to be recognized as a vital aspect of the life of any society, a campaign is needed to inform the public and its leaders. The educational community - students, teachers and administrators - and the public at large - parents, legislators and leaders - naturally are partners to this effort, for not only are they the beneficiaries of the fruits of research, but also they are the makers of the
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policies and decisions and the allocators of resources. The formation of research groups within each country and a regional council for educational research for the Arab Middle East may be accompanied by effort on two different levels. The first would be a grassroots campaign to inform the public and win its support. The media in several of the states in the Arab Middle East already have shown interest in education and often have special programs on schools. There is no doubt that public understanding could be enhanced once a public information campaign on educational research is launched. In addition, advocates of educational research, once organized, would have some lobbying capabilities through which to influence leaders and key decision-makers, perhaps in a fashion similar to that already followed by professional organizations in the West, for example, the National Education Association of the US. The second would be directed toward the educational community itself. Teachers and administrators cannot be expected to cooperate in research unless they are made aware of its aims and its place in the total education effort. Pre-service and in-service teacher training programs must be revised to provide an adequate orientation in this direction. Further, the daily life of the teacher must be re-oriented; at present teachers rarely, if ever, take time to read research findings and see what implications they have for classroom practice. They would if their principals, supervisors and other education leaders made educational research a real and a continuous concern, and reflected this concern in their daily work. The suggestions offered above should prove mutually reinforcing and, together, would advance the cause of educational research in the Arab Middle East and improve its quality and quantity. Assuming greater importance in world affairs every day, the region is now ready for a great push forward on all fronts: it is economically powerful, it is generally beyond internal unrest, and has already developed a large core of well trained specialists in all fields. What is needed now is a coherent policy for educational research and development and sufficient funding to implement it.
NOTES 1. Though it is difficult to establish an exact date for the emergence of empirical, scientifically-oriented research in education, the work of J.M. Rice initiated in 1894 may be viewed as a real beginning. However,
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some writers point to J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) as major figures in the establishment of educational research. See Gilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educational Research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968, p. 38. 2. The contents of this paper pertain to Egypt and Sudan in northeastern Africa and all the Arab countries in south-western Asia. 3. Significant among these are the following: the Higher Institute of Education in Egypt (1932), the Center for Educational and Psychological Research in Iraq (1966), the Center for English Language Research and Teaching (1964) and the Center for Science and Mathematics (1969) both within the Department of Education at the American University of Beirut. 4. For example: the National Center for Educational Research in Egypt (1972), the Center for Educational Research and Development in Lebanon (1972), and the Center for Curricular Studies in Kuwait (1974). 5. Two examples are presented to illustrate this: (a) In Iraq, according to Dr. Suad Ismail of the UNESCORegional Office for Education in the Arab Countries, Beirut, a total amount of 30,000 Iraqi Dinars (approximately $ 75,000) was allocated to the Center for Educational and Psychological Research in 1971-72. This amount represents a mere 0.05 per cent of the total cost of education: 66,096,444 Iraqi Dinars for the same year (Source: Development of Education, Culture and Science in Ira@ Baghdad: Government of Iraq, 1974, p. 14); (b) In Lebanon, according to Dr. Yousef Farran of the Center for Educational Research and Development, Beirut, the amount allocated to educational research for 1974 is L£ 665,000 ($ 290,000). This represents 0.24 per cent of the total budget for the Ministry of Education, However, more than 50 per cent of elementary and secondary level students are enrolled in private schools which are not supported by the Ministry.
6. Researchand Development in Education. A Survey. Paris: OECD, 1974. 7. Fahim I. Qubain, Education and Science in the Arab World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966, p. 510.
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8. Census figures of Saudi Arabia are classified and can be obtained only upon special permission. Lebanon's latest official census of the population was in 1932. Syria, on the other hand, publishes an annual Statistical Abstract by the Central Bureau of Statistics. This document contains statistics on enrolments, population, demographic distribution, labor and others. 9. According to UNESCO,Children and Youth in National Planning and Development in the Arab States. Beirut, Lebanon: UN Children's Fund, 1970, p. 56, illiteracy rates for the age bracket 15-24 years range from 10.4 per cent in Lebanon to 95.2 per cent in Saudi Arabia. 10. Charis Loizides, "Role of Educators in Community Leadership in Select Communities in Cyprus". Master's thesis, American University of Beirut, 1973, pp. 39-41. 11. Data provided by the Acquisitions Department, Jafet Library, American University of Beirut.
12. University of Kuwait Directory. Kuwait: University of Kuwait, 1971-72, p. 248. 13. Jess Duggan, American University in Cairo, personal communication. 14. Armine Darakjian, "An Assessment of the Amount of Educational Research Done in Five Arab Countries Based on a Survey and Content Analysis of Educational Periodicals Published in the Area". Master's thesis, American University of Beirut, 1974. The seven journals studied include: Majlat at-Tarbiyah al-Haditha (Journal of Modern Education) published quarterly by the American University in Cairo with a total circulation of 1,000; al-Mu'alim aj-Jadid (The New Teacher) published quarterly by the Iraqi Ministry of Education with a circulation of 70,000; Rissalat al-Mu'atim (The Teacher's Mission) published bimonthly by the Jordan Ministry of Education with a circulation of 5,000; Sahifat at-Takhtit at-Tarbawi (Journal of Educational Planning) published by the Regional Center for Educational Planning and Administration, with a total circulation of under 5,000 until its discontinuation in 1973. 15. E.T. Prothro and L.H. Melikian, "The California Public Opinion
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Scale in an Authoritarian Culture", Public Opinion Quarterly 17 (Fall 1953), pp. 353-362. 16. T.W. Adorno; E. Frankel-Brunswill; D.J. Levinson; and R.N. Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper, 1950. 17. A.O. Rabih, "The Measurement of Factors of Teacher Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction in Teaching in the Khartoum Metropolitan Area". Master's thesis, American University of Beirut, 1973. 18. John Gay and Michael Cole in their book The New Mathematics and an Old Culture. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967, have found major differences in set formation between American children and Kpelle children of Liberia. One may conclude that set formation is a function of the particular culture and, if so, patterns of set formation must be investigated and understood before new mathematics textbooks can be prepared. 19. P.A. Sorokin, Fads and Foibles in Modern Sociology. Chicago: Regnery, 1956, pp. 159-160. 20. Alfred Yates (ed.), The Role of Research in Educational Change. Palo Alto, Cal.: Pacific Books, 1971, pp. 31-39.
