Anal Bioanal Chem (2010) 397:17–23 DOI 10.1007/s00216-009-3377-5

TRENDS

The environmental challenge for analytical sciences Manfred Grasserbauer

Received: 12 November 2009 / Revised: 2 December 2009 / Accepted: 2 December 2009 / Published online: 17 December 2009 # Springer-Verlag 2009

Abstract In this paper the major elements of the European Union’s policy on environmental protection and sustainable development and the resulting challenges for analytical sciences are presented. The priority issues dealt with are: & & &

Sustainable management of natural resources: air, water and soil Climate change and clean energy Global development cooperation

Analytical sciences are required to provide policyrelevant information for the development and implementation of European Union legislation and form a strong pillar for a sustainable evolution of our region and our planet. It shows what information needs to be provided, how the necessary quality levels can be achieved and what new approaches, e.g. combining measurements and modelling, or earth observations with in situ chemical/physical measurements, need to be taken to achieve an integrated assessment of the state of the environment and to develop approaches for sustainable development. Keywords Analytical sciences . Environment . Sustainable development . Natural resources . Climate change . Renewable energies . Development cooperation

Introduction During the Anthropocene, humans have had a profound impact on our planet: up to now, half of the land surface has been transformed by humans. In recent history mankind has M. Grasserbauer (*) Department of Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria e-mail: [email protected]

experienced a rapid and accelerating evolution: in the past three centuries the population of earth increased tenfold to six billion. Industrial production increased 40-fold in the last 100 years. In this period of the Anthropocene, humans have thoroughly colonized nature [1]. This development had a profound impact on large parts of the world: it led to a “world of today” where some parts enjoy economic wealth and high social security and where other parts suffer from poverty and shortage of essential resources and services. Both domains of our planet have in common that significant environmental problems arose through this evolution and many still exist. The negative effects associated with industrialization and high production led to the concept of environmental protection and sustainable development. Originating in the USA in the 1960s triggered by Carson’s book [2] The silent spring, the wave of environmentalism swept over Europe in the 1970s, leading to numerous environmental protection measures at national and European level: Since 1970 approximately 250 pieces of European Union legislation have been produced and six environmental action programmes were established. These programmes were immensely successful, so we can nowadays truly claim that the environmental quality for the European citizen is better than that in most other parts of the world. Analytical chemistry has provided the backbone for environmental protection by providing reliable data on the state of the environment and thereby sound information for decision makers. During the 1980s a gradual change of the policy paradigm started by moving from environmental protection based on “end of pipe” measures to an integrated approach based on the concept of “sustainable development”, where environmental quality is linked with economic growth and high social standards. This change in thinking was initiated by the groundbreaking publication Limits to growth by

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Meadows et al. [3], which contained as a key message that the resources of this world are limited, and the report Our common future by the United Nations, which introduced the concept of sustainable development as a basis for future policies [4]. The European Union reacted by formulating a strong European Union sustainable development policy with the core element of integration of environmental considerations into all European Union policies [COM (2001) 264final], thus leading to the present three pillars of the European Union policies: economic growth, social equilibrium, and environmental quality [COM (2005) 24final]. Sustainable development is therefore a key objective for all European Union policies.

Key issues for sustainable development The Communication of the European Commission to Council and Parliament of 2005 “On the review of the sustainable development strategy—a platform for action” lists as priority areas [COM (2005) 658final]: – – –

Management of natural resources Climate change and clean energy Global poverty and development challenges

Sustainable management of natural resources Quality of ambient air Air pollution has been a major concern in Europe since the mid-1960s. Many governments and the European Union reacted with a series of policy initiatives and legislation for the limitation of emissions from industry, energy production and transport dating back at the European level to as early as 1970 with regular updates and revisions. More recent health studies have demonstrated, however, that even though major improvements in the quality of ambient air have been achieved, significant parts of the population still suffer from summer (ozone) or winter (particulate matter) smog, and respiratory diseases are very common. The current problems and possible further actions are addressed in the European Commission’s Thematic Strategy on Clean Air for Europe [COM (2005) 446final], leading to a new Air Quality Directive (Directive 2008/50/EC). These days, European hot spots for air pollution can be predominantly found in urban areas and regions with a very high traffic density. Road transport and shipping are now responsible for a major part of the emissions of CO2, particulate matter, SO2, NOx and volatile organic compounds (forming ozone) in many regions. In addition,

transport is responsible for roughly 20% of European Union greenhouse gas emissions. Directives such as EURO 5 and EURO 6 (and those still to come) are of utmost importance to limit particle and NOx emissions. The development of “on-board” emission diagnostic devices for heavy-duty vehicles, which continuously measure the exhaust gases for pollutants, is in progress and will allow the establishment of a traffic management system based on minimization of pollution. Another problem area is air pollution from shipping since it is virtually non-regulated and fuel with a high sulphur content (up to several percent) is frequently used. Ship traffic is therefore a major source for SO2, NOx and ozone. The Europe-wide contribution of shipping to atmospheric NOx was one third of the total in 2000 but will be two thirds in 2010, according to projections. The particularly high ozone values over the Mediterranean Sea are largely caused by ship traffic. Another growing focus of attention is the long-range transport of air pollutants, particularly in the global context. The European network for measuring the long-range transport of air pollutants (EMEP) established some decades ago to measure the cross-boundary transport of pollution within Europe is now focussing its attention on the hemispherical transport of pollutants to establish the impact of emissions in North America, South Asia and East Asia on the air quality in Europe. Analytical sciences play a major role in monitoring the quality of ambient air and face many challenges, such as improving the quality of relevant data by linking routine air quality monitoring to metrological measurement systems or harmonizing and standardizing PM2.5 (fine particles of dimensions less than 2.5 µm) monitoring, establishing reliable methods for source apportionment of particulate matter, and developing “on-board“ emission diagnostic devices for heavy-duty vehicles. Furthermore, the combination of monitoring and modelling for the assessment of the regional and hemispherical transport of pollutants and the determination of non-local contributions to a particular emission situation must be further advanced. The development of space-based monitoring systems, e.g. within the frame of the Global Monitoring for Environmental Security (GMES) project, and calibration/validation through in situ measurements is another task which will require a massive contribution from analytical sciences and will represent a major contribution to a future Shared Environmental Information System (SEIS). The development and operation of SEIS aiming at more efficient scientific support to European Union policies is now a priority task [COM (2008) 46final]. SEIS is based on in situ monitoring and earth observation data connected through a new spatial data infrastructure (INSPIRE) to

The environmental challenge for analytical sciences

produce policy-relevant information. It essentially provides interoperability between the national data centres and therefore a system for efficient delivery of environmental data throughout the European Union (COM2007/2/EC). This should simplify reporting of environmental quality data from the member states to the European Environment Agency (EEA) and EUROSTAT. Present reporting obligations include approximately 110 data sets providing the basis for the calculation of 37 environmental indicators by the EEA and EUROSTAT. Earth system science is becoming more and more important for the monitoring of environmental quality, resource consumption, agricultural productivity and the impact of global warming since it provides information at global, regional and local level for many parameters. The GMES project of the European Union is now in its initial operational phase setting up services for land, marine and atmospheric monitoring and crisis management. Land monitoring services will provide information on land use and land cover changes of interest for climate change, water management, biodiversity, agricultural production and urban planning. Marine services will provide information on the state of the coastal and marine environment. Atmospheric services focus on monitoring air pollution and climate change variables. Crisis management services will provide information important for responses to crises and emergencies associated with natural and man-made disasters, such as floods, fires, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and industrial accidents. GMES is the European contribution to GEOSS, a comprehensive global earth observation system established by the major satellite operators such as the USA, Japan, India, China and Brazil. Inland and marine waters Despite massive efforts to clean up European waters during the last few decades and the enactment of various important pieces of legislation, e.g. the Urban Waste Water Directives (91/271/EEC and 98/15/EEC), the Directive for Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (96/61/EC), the Directive on Nitrates from Agriculture (91/676/EC) and the Bathing Water Directives (76/160/EC and 2006/7/EC), massive pollution problems and threats in respect to European inland and marine waters still exist: 20% of all European surface water bodies are seriously threatened by pollution (nitrate and pesticides) and available ecotoxicological data are insufficient for many chemicals. Thirty thousand square kilometres of European freshwaters are affected by acidification. The ecological status of inland waters is often poor. European seas are significantly affected by eutrophication. In addition, there is a widespread overconsumption of water, particularly in the south of Europe. Water scarcity

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now affects 100 million people in Europe and a dramatic increase is predicted for southern Europe as a consequence of global warming. Several initiatives of the European Commission address these issues, in particular the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), its daughter directive on groundwater (2006/ 118/EC), the Priority Substance Directive (2008/105/EC), the Marine Thematic Strategy [COM(2005) 504final] and its associated directive (2008/56/EC) and—with special consideration of climate change impacts—the Floods Directive (06/15/EC) and a Communication on Water Scarcity and Droughts [COM(2007) 414final]. The Water Framework Directive requires integrated impact-based river basin management based on an ecosystem approach for a holistic assessment of surface water status and has the major objective to achieve a “good surface water status” by 2015 and prevention of deterioration for all water bodies in the European Union. This objective is ambitious considering that perhaps 50% of the European inland waters presently have insufficient ecological quality. Further important objectives of the Water Framework Directive refer to ecological quality parameters and achieving a good chemical and quantitative status of groundwaters. The Water Framework Directive has a visionary approach as it addresses the water issues in a transnational manner based on the concepts of river basins. Implementation is, of course, a challenge for large basins, such as the Danube Basin, comprising an area of 801,463 km² with 81 million inhabitants covering 19 countries. In this case the cooperation on a regional transnational level as provided by the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River is most important to achieve the goals. The establishment of ecological quality standards [5, 6] is a massive pan-European effort involving roughly 1,500 water control and research centres throughout Europe dealing with the quality of river, lake and coastal waters. Among others, new analytical methods are searched for which allow rapid and cost-effective monitoring of the ecological status of a water body, e.g. by measuring diatoms as an indicator for environmental stress based on DNA microarray technology [7].But is it not only the assessment of the ecological status of waters which provides challenges for analytical sciences, it is also still the classic chemical pollution which requires further development of analytical methods and monitoring strategies. Despite the huge efforts made in the past few decades to assess pollution, there is limited information available and a lack of reliable data, e.g. on pesticides in groundwater—even though there are clear indications for pesticide pollution in many regions of Europe. The requirements for monitoring chemical pollutants are based on several regulations, such as the Dangerous Substances Directive 76/464, the list of priority substances in

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the Water Framework Directive and identified river basin specific pollutants. In general, we have to assume that about 100,000 chemical compounds entered the environment— albeit many in very small or negligible quantities. Still, more systematic investigations, particularly screening programmes for the presence of new substances (“emerging pollutants”) such as those performed in the Joint Danube Survey 2 (2007), are necessary for European water bodies [8]. A further focus of attention in respect to water quality is pollution from diffuse sources. The intensity of land use through agriculture has steadily increased over the years, demonstrated, e.g., by a tenfold increase in use of fertilizers in agricultural production compared with 50 years ago. Many scientific issues of relevance for the development of effective new policies have to be addressed in the context of the assessment of the fate of pollutants in terrestrial and coastal ecosystems in Europe, e.g. what are the main sources of nutrient pollutants? What is the share of nutrients coming from diffuse sources? How is the fate of nutrients influenced by climatic factors and/or soil properties? How can one derive measures for the most effective policy support? The most feasible approach to providing answers useful for the development of policy support and appropriate recommendations is modelling-based assessment in a nested context combined with scenario analysis [9, 10]. This approach includes modelling of pollutant transport to coastal zones. Coastal zones are intensively exploited and belong to the most endangered ecosystems in Europe. The strongest anthropogenic pressures arise from freshwater inputs rich in pollutants, population growth in coastal areas, and fish and shellfish farming and tourism leading to disruptions of ecosystem functioning through anoxic crises, microbial contamination and algal blooms. Modelling of chemical, physical and biological processes in coastal zones using a variety of input parameters such as agricultural and industrial productivity, population, economic subsidies for the watershed areas, flows of nutrients and contaminants from the rivers and the open sea and meteorological data can lead to a realistic description of the behaviour of such complex systems and the evaluation of management options in respect to an expansion of tourism, aquaculture, etc. [11]. Such approaches towards achieving a sustainable management of the precious coastal marine resources must be complemented by the regular monitoring of the environmental state of such areas. New satellite-based monitoring techniques allow the accurate measurement of phytoplankton in European seas and thus the determination of the degree of eutrophication and the establishment of physicochemical ecology and climate-relevant variables [12]. Summarizing, one can say that the challenges for analytical sciences relate to the development of methods

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and their harmonization and standardization for priority pollutants, emerging pollutants and ecological quality parameters of lake, river and coastal waters. Furthermore, new cost-effective monitoring strategies based on “learning networks”, dedicated sensor networks, space-based monitoring systems (particularly for eutrophication assessment) and an effective combination of monitoring and modelling for input, transport and effects of pollutants should be developed. The establishment of the SEIS element “water quality and quantity” based on the Water Information System for Europe (WISE) is a further priority. Soil Soil is an endangered species, but the problems have in the past been rather neglected [SEC(2006) 620]: soil erosion affects 17% of Europe’s surface, European soils have reduced organic carbon content (particularly in southern Europe), many land use changes cause enhanced sealing of soil and there exist approximately 3.5 million contaminated soil sites. The issue of the preservation of soil quality and its essential functions is very serious since soil is a nonrenewable resource and climate change is expected to enhance pressures on soil. The European Commission reacted to this situation by producing a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection [COM(2006) 231final] and a proposal for a Framework Directive for Soil Protection [COM (2006) 232final] aiming at stopping the further deterioration of soils, maintaining soil functions and restoring damaged areas. Research must underpin the process of soil protection and restoration. Analytical data are indispensable and many efforts to monitor soil quality and the presence of pollutants must still be made, including the development of bioindicators to evaluate soil health [13], providing important input for the generation of European data sets by the newly established European Data Centres for Soils (ESDAC) at the Joint Research Centre [14]. Integration of soil data with other data sets, e.g. on land use, climate parameters and topographical landscape structures, allows a pan-European soil erosion risk assessment. Soils are also major sinks for carbon and form the biggest carbon pool on earth (approximately 1,500×109 tons), and on the other hand are an important source of the greenhouse gas N2O, with emissions depending on aerobic conditions. Assessment of carbon stocks and changes under conditions of climate change are priority tasks in this context as the models show that a substantial decrease of soil organic carbon can be expected [15]. Soil quality and sustainability evaluation based on reliable analytical data provides an integrated approach to support soil-related policies in the European Union [16].

The environmental challenge for analytical sciences

Climate change and clean energy Since preindustrial times, the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases CO2, N2O and CH4 have significantly increased owing to fossil fuel consumption, agriculture and land use changes (CO2eq from 280 to 430 ppm). Greenhouse gas emissions have strongly enhanced the natural warming and led to an overall increase of the global mean temperature of 0.78±0.18 °C and a sea level rise of 15 cm. Under baseline scenarios, CO2 emissions will further increase (by 70% in industrialized countries and by 250% in developing countries by 2050), leading to a further temperature increase of more than 2°C by 2050 and nearly 4°C by 2100—the so-called best estimate for scenario A2 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [17]. The uncertainty range of such projections is still rather high: for this scenario the “likely temperature” rise covers a range from 2.4 to 6.4°C (all figures relate to 1990 as the reference year). High-performance analytical chemistry has been at the basis for climate change assessment, ranging from accurate measurement of the atmospheric CO2 concentrations in the Global Atmospheric Watch stations to extremely sophisticated isotopic mass-spectrometric techniques to reveal the historical evolution of global warming. Nowadays, we have become aware of many different effects of global warming, such as the strong retreat of Alpine glaciers and the reduction of the Arctic ice shield by 40% since 1970. Global warming effects are expected to become more pronounced in the coming decades. Regional climate models predict a substantial decrease of precipitation in the southern European dry regions and an increase of rainfall and snowfall in central and northern Europe [18]. The European Union has reacted to global warming by introducing European Climate Change Programmes I and II. These include emission reductions of 8% by 2012 according to the Kyoto Protocol established in 1997 and of 20% (30%) by 2020 based on the Integrated Climate and Energy Strategy. The long-term vision foresees an effort to limit global warming to an average of 2°C (compared with preindustrial times), which would require global emission reductions of at least 50% by 2050. The reduction efforts must be made on an as broad as possible geographical basis and must include in any case the high emitters, but also countries in rapid development [COM(2007) 2final]. The European Union integrated climate and energy policy contains targets for increase of energy efficiency (savings of 20% compared with projections of energy consumption for 2020), use of renewable energies aiming at a share of 20% of total energy consumed in the European Union and a biofuel target of 10% of transport petrol and diesel consumption [Presidency Conclusions 7224/1/07, COM (2008) 30final]. Further elements of this package

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are the establishment of a stringent emission limitation and trading system [COM(2008) 16final, COM(2008) 17final] and support to develop carbon capture and storage technologies [COM(2008) 18final]. It is obvious that the European Union programme should have a “model character” and be an incentive for other countries to follow, particularly if the expected benefits, namely making economic gains from a rapidly developing new industry devoted to environmentally effective technologies, e.g. for energy production, transport and housing, are realized as expected. Analytical sciences have a particularly important role in assessing the “greenhouse gas problem” and monitoring global change. The quality assurance systems for emission inventories need to be further developed, by, e.g., reducing uncertainties in the flux of greenhouse gases in the domains of agriculture, forestry and land use, and new assessment systems based on a combination of monitoring and modelling for emission and transport of greenhouse gases and air pollutants need to be established [19]. Of particular importance is the development of space-based monitoring systems, which need to be calibrated and validated through in situ measurements for the assessment of the global concentrations of climate-affecting gases and aerosols [20]. New monitoring techniques such as the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation allow the assessment of vegetation productivity and other important climate change variables on a regional and global scale [21]. Another challenge for science, and especially for analytical science, is the reliable assessment of the impact of climate change on ecosystems. European water resources are seen as particularly vulnerable, as described in various reports [22, 23]. A comprehensive assessment of the impact of climate change on European ecosystems has been prepared by the EEA, the Joint Research Centre and the World Health Organization [24], and the European Commission has already issued a white paper on adaptation to climate change [SEC(2009) 386, 387, 388] A large number of challenging tasks arise for research, such as the development of reliable regional climate change models leading to forecasts of local warming, changes in precipitation or potential droughts [25]. To implement the integrated climate and energy policy, a European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (“Towards a low carbon future”) has been developed [COM(2007) 723final] and demonstrates the immediate need to develop advanced technologies for electricity production and its efficient use and energy-efficient transport to reduce fossil fuel consumption. The European Union policy to combat climate change requires massive efforts to develop new clean and sustainable technologies and we need to aim for a “Third Industrial Revolution” (Hans Joachim Schellnhuber,

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Director of Potsdam Institute for Climate Change Impact Assessment). Global cooperation and substantial policy guidance with initial financial stimulation are necessary. Focus must be on replacing fossil fuels by renewable energies and on developing resource-efficient technologies for all areas of production. This is a huge challenge for science and technology in general, but also for analytical sciences. High-performance analytical science in support of technology development will be important for all areas.

Global poverty and development challenges In terms of public perception, our society is very aware that changes outside Europe are exerting pressures on the European Union: air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, economic competition, population growth and migration. Our society is, however, less aware that Europe is also exporting pressure on the environment by strong overconsumption of global resources: its ecological footprint is 3 times as much as its “fair earth share” and consequently Europe is not in line with the WWF’s “one planet living” concept. The European Union reacted to these challenges by establishing principles for the European Union policy on global sustainable development [COM(2002) 82final] and integration of the European Union sustainable development policy into European Union external policies, such as those on trade, security and development cooperation [SEC (2008) 434]. The environmental pressures on ecosystems in areas outside Europe are increasing at a dramatic speed. In the rapidly growing economies, we encounter massive land destruction, and water and air pollution in and around new mega cities. Europe must therefore cooperate closely with these “tiger economies” with the aim of spreading the principle of sustainable development by transferring the concept, approaches and experience and by teaching the next generation. Europe must provide the “best available” technologies and open up for further joint developments to reduce industrial production, to improve energy efficiency, to produce “clean energy” and to develop sustainable modes of transport. Furthermore, Europe must enter into a socioeconomic dialogue. The “less developed economies” are stricken by different problems: lack of essential infrastructure and services (two billion people without energy services, such as access to electricity), shortage of agricultural land, food and water (globally only 12% of the land surface is usable for agriculture and only 2.5% is high-value farmland, one billion people are without access to safe drinking water), widespread diseases and poverty (in sub-Saharan Africa

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50% of the people live on less than €1 per day, and there are millions of potential migrants). Europe has to show strong engagement for these countries and regions by providing development aid focussing on infrastructure development, provision of essential services, food security, creation of jobs and combat of diseases, by enhancing trade through the removal of European import barriers and excessive export subsidies, by providing adequate technologies following the European Union sustainability criteria as much as possible and by enhancing political dialogue, particularly as a means for democratic evolution of such countries and peacekeeping. Important tasks for analytical sciences include the provision of environmental monitoring systems and knowledge and know-how to rapidly developing economies and developing countries, the deployment of globally operating space-based observation systems for monitoring of pollution of air and water, the exploitation of natural resources [26, 27], the assessment of climate change impact, the monitoring of agricultural productivity and, last but not least, the establishment of data and observation systems for environmental health, and the provision of reliable methods for food and feed contaminants produced in these countries.

Outlook Environmental policies developed at the European level since 1970 have led to a decoupling of environmental pollution from economic growth. The extensive European Community legislation in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development created the basis for this evolution. A careful analysis of the consequences of implementing these sustainable policies internally and externally leads to the conclusion that the benefits of such an approach greatly outweigh any potential drawbacks, such as having to invest heavily now in new energy- and material-efficient technologies. As many important resources are approaching their limits and global warming is mainly caused by the use of fossil fuels, the principles of sustainable development, which include the sustainable management of natural resources, must be applied not only in Europe, but also globally. The European Union has decided to act as a pioneer in this respect with the aim of achieving the proper evolution within its own territory, but also of convincing the other major industrial powers, the “tiger states” and developing countries that it is also advantageous for them to follow this approach and closely collaborate with the European Union in addressing their regional problems, such as excessive pollution and poor management of natural resources, as well as the major global challenges, such as climate change.

The environmental challenge for analytical sciences

Europe has great assets for advancing the concept of sustainable development internally and externally, namely substantial resources as one of the wealthiest regions of the world, high-performing industry and an excellently trained workforce which can be a key driver in the forthcoming “Third Industrial Revolution”, and finally a highly educated population which should be able to understand the problems and accept solutions, even when they are sometimes painful. Technology will undergo a profound change in the coming decades. Analytical sciences will find new tasks and can contribute substantially to this evolution since the information generated is needed virtually in every project. Declaration The content of this paper is based on research results obtained at the Joint Research Centre, which provides science-based support to the European Commission for questions relating to the sustainable development of the European Union.

Disclaimer The content of this paper cannot be interpreted as an official statement of the European Commission, even if it reflects the political intentions of the European Union.

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