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GLOBALPERSPECTIVESON LIFELONGLEARNING TYPOLOGIESANDTHE LEISURELEARNER by Nancy Arsenault The purpose of a typology is to enhance understanding and bring simplified meaning to complex phenomena. In this article, the findings of a study are explored in an attempt to develop a typology of older adults who are retired, or contemplating retirement, and who enjoy learning as aform of leisure. Leisure, lifelong learning, laughter, love of life, liberty, and livelihood all begin with the letter "L," but that is not all. These words could also describe a particular type of person or group of people. Consider Fred, who studies wildlife on the Internet, and then plans an annual safari to Africa to enhance his passion for learning about this subject area. This is radically different from Sarah, who has devoted a lifetime to tracing her family roots and spends hours in the archives at various libraries researching her family history; or from Janine, who has just retired and wants to learn how to play golf. These people differ in what, when, where, why, and how they want to learn. Still, they have one thing in common; they are leisure learners--people who freely choose, as a form of leisure, to engage in a wide range of educational activities. But who are these leisure learners? How many different types are there? Is there a typology of the leisure learner that can be identified? Can leisure learners identify themselves in the same way as an athlete who claims to be a cyclist, a musician a pianist, or an artist a sculptor? Are there categories of leisure learners, like musicians or athletes, that can be identified based on certain common characteristics, behaviours, or choices they make about their learning experiences? These questions were at the heart of a recent study by Arsenault (1996), aimed at determining if a typology exists for the leisure learner. She believes that if one can identify and understand the various types of leisure learners, then providers of educational services and programs can use this information to develop responsive and relevant pro-
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Typology grams, services, and marketing strategies to meet the needs of each type of participant. The purpose of a typology is to enhance understanding and bring simplified meaning to complex phenomena. Typologies are prevalent in the fields of marketing and consumer research, where one of the first tasks is to divide the target market into relatively homogeneous segments. They can be based on common characteristics, behaviours, or attitudes, and are helpful in revealing the underlying mind-set people hold towards various services, programs, or products. Typologies are also used to develop advertising campaigns aimed at specific groups, whether they are based on how objects are used or on the way people experience a product or program (Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1982; Holt, 1995; Meredith and Schewe, 1994). The purpose of this article is to share the findings of a study aimed at developing a typology of mature leisure learners--people who are retired or contemplating retirement. A review of the literature affirms that typologies are a powerful way to enhance our understanding about sub-groups of people within a specific population. For example, Houle's study of twenty-two adult learners (1961) identified three types of learners based on their motivational orientation: goal oriented, learning oriented, and activity oriented. This tri-part typology has provided a simplified base of understanding that, for almost four decades, has been the single most influential motivational study in adult education. Using a variety of research methods and sample populations from a wide range of organizations, Houle's typology continues to stimulate researchers to affirm or refine his original categories (Cross, 1992). Similarly, Levinson (1978), with his intellectual roots in sociology, psychology, and psychiatry, used typologies to understand the life cycle. Using in-depth interviews with forty men, over a two-year period, Levinson constructed his theory of adult development. Again, this theory has prompted other researchers to examine the life cycle. One of the most renowned is Gail Sheehy; author of two best-sellers, Passages (1974) and New Passages:
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Typology Mapping Your Life across Time (1995), books that examine types of people based on their age and stage in life. Identifying the Leisure Learner Attempting to understand the types of leisure learners that represent a large, diverse segment of the population can be somewhat daunting. Therefore it is important to first step back and identify what leisure education is, who leisure learners are, and what is already known about these people. Authors who write about leisure education often allude to the relationship between lifelong learning and leisure education (Swedburg, 1992). This is not surprising if one accepts that learning, which is freely chosen and pursued for the purposes of self-fulfillment or personal satisfaction, is a form of leisure. The fact that this phenomena exists is quite simply a by-product of the social changes that have shaped today's world. In a nutshell, Leisure + Education = Leisure Education. If the essence of leisure education is the freedom to choose learning activities that will enrich one's life, then logically, the leisure learner is any person who freely chooses to engage in a learning activity. This learning may take place at a recreation or community center, academic institution, church, or in the privacy of one's home (taking advantage of the Internet or distance learning opportunities). The variety of courses and programs that attract participants is as vast as the population, ranging
Learning that is freely chosen and pursued for the purposes of self-fulfillment or personal satisfaction is a form of leisure.
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Typology from sewing or carpentry courses, to bible or music studies, to kayaking or aerobics lessons, to obtaining a university degree in retirement.
The Elderhostel Example A prime example of people who learn for the enjoyment of learning are Elderhostel participants. These people, aged 55-plus, enroll in one-week educational programs around the world to study a wide range of liberal arts subjects at universities, colleges, and at select commercial sites in all of the American states, Canadian provinces, and sixty other countries. The motto of Elderhostel Canada is "the educational adventure where minds and experience meet." The motto of the American parent organization, Elderhostel Inc. is, "learning is half the fun." As an organization, Elderhostel caters to the lifelong learning interests of older adults. It is the epitome of leisure education, and participants can be defined as leisure learners. It is also an organization that has grown at an unprecedented rate since its inception in 1974 (Knowlton, 1977; Swedburg, 1991a); its m o m e n t u m is irreversible (Kaplan, 1981). Yet, despite unparalleled success and over 350,000 annual registrations, one fact remains problematic for the organization: certain programs are over-subscribed, resulting in long waiting lists, while other programs must be cancelled due to lack of interest. Again, a review of the literature informs us that, for the most part, the 5W's of participation and motivation have been well researched (Boshier, 1971; Boshier and Collins, 1985; Cross, 1992; Merriam and Caffarella, 1991; Romaniuk and Romaniuk, 1982; Scanlan and Darkenwald, 1982; Wlodkowski, 1991). To illustrate, consider two people, one who has signed up for a photography course through his/her city's recreation department, and one who has just been accepted at the local community college for a certificate program in volunteerism. The organizations offering these programs can probably safely answer why participants enroll, what they hope
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Typology to gain from their learning experience, when and where people will sign up for courses, and how participants prefer to learn. What is not known is what type of person chooses one venue over another, one program over another. What is needed is a typology of the leisure learner--typology that, like Houle's, can form a base for increased and enhanced understanding of the different types of leisure learners.
The Research Design The purpose of a recent study by Arsenault (1996) was to explore if certain types of participants, who make similar program choices, could be categorized based on how they make decisions regarding their educational experiences. Together with Elderhostel participants, this investigation sought to establish a typology of the older adult leisure learner. A qualitative research design, grounded in hermeneutic phenomenology, was chosen because it permits a dialectic circle between the participants, the data collectors, and the primary researcher. As this was an exploratory study, it was vital that the researcher use the hermeneutic circle to validate emerging themes, recast ideas to the participants, and together develop common constructs and shared perspectives about how leisure education decisions are made, and what commonalities exist between the various participants. This national study collected data from 154 participants, enrolled at ten different Elderhostel sites across Canada, during a seven-week period between May and July 1996. Criterion sampling was used to ensure that the sites differed in their geographical location and program offerings. Data from seventeen focus groups, a demographic questionnaire, ten in-depth interviews, and participant observation field notes were triangulated, a n a l y z e d , a n d i n t e r p r e t e d a c c o r d i n g to Moustakas's (1990) five phases of phenomenological analysis. The data collection instruments were evaluated by senior members of the organization and two expert advisors. Based on this feedback, revisions were made
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Typology to both inquiry protocols and the demographic questionnaire. The choice of Elderhostel as an educational venue for learning and specific course selections was found to be influenced by fourteen factors: location, travel, program, course content, accommodations, cost, dates, negotiation with travel partner, social, sites, personal requirements, escape, information, and the organization's policies, philosophy and program requirements (Arsenault, Anderson and Swedburg, in press). All but two of these factors (negotiate with partner and organizational considerations) concur with previous studies in adult and gerontological education (Adair and Mowsesian, 1993; Boshier, 1971; Morstain and Smart, 1974; Rice, 1986; Romaniuk and Romaniuk, 1982; Swedburg, 1991b). The search for a typology revealed six types of leisure learning participants.
The Participant Typology Discovering the participant typology was a rather visceral experience. Early in the data collection period, people who seemed to share similar interests and attitudes could be identified, but the challenge was to understand, define, and label these groups of people. Themes emerging from the focus groups and participant observation experience were recast to the participants until, ultimately, an individual who seemed to epitomize a particular type of leisure learner was identified. These
The motto of Elderhostel Canada is "the educational adventure where minds and experience meet." The motto of the American parent organization, Elderhostel Inc., is "learning is half the fun."
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...six types of participants [in Elderhostel] were identified: activity-oriented, geographical guru, experimenter, adventurer, contentcommitted, and opportunist.
select individuals were then invited to participate in indepth interviews aimed at gaining insight into how this person made the choice to attend Elderhostel and the specific program they were attending. It was through this process that the labels for the typology emerged. For example, in one focus group Arlene [pseudonym] came right out and said, "I love to experiment!" In a follow-up interview, this statement was discussed, Arlene's learning interests and decision-making process explored and, eventually, the "experimenter" defined. Ultimately, six types of participants were identified: activity-oriented, geographical guru, experimenter, adventurer, content-committed, and opportunist. These six types of participants differed in a variety of ways, including how and where they prefer to learn, their commitment to programs featuring a single vs. multiple subject areas, and the degree to which they wanted their learning experience to include some level of physical activity. Activity-oriented participants are best described as those who firmly believe that, "while I can move, I want to keep moving. I'll have lots of time to sit down later!" These people select their Elderhostel site based on the fact that there is a physical activity component included. They will not, under normal circumstances, register for a program that involves remaining seated and doing all their learning in a classroom. Activity-oriented people enjoy experiential learning: the opportunity to walk in the canyons and touch the moss, to go on field trips and to actively engage in their learning experience. They look for courses that take them outdoors and into nature. These learning opportunities may be on a golf course or tennis court, hiking with a naturalist, exploring an aquatic habitat, or taking a series of field trips to learn about photography. Geographical gurus select their site based on the fact that they want to visit an area or region. What draws the geographical guru is the opportunity to see and explore new regions and learn about the local area; sometimes that is all they consider. It was not uncommon to hear comments such as, "If I wanted to go to a place, I
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Typology wouldn't care what the program was" [or] "I'll take a lot of programs I don't like because I w a n t the location. Even if they are studying basket weaving, if I want the area I'll go because I know I'll learn something." This is not to imply, however, that there is no interest in the program. Some geographical gurus have specific program interests, the most common relating to the location: "If I'm going to be traveling very far, I w a n t to learn about the area I'm traveling to, the learning has to relate to the area!" Experimenters are novice participants interested in exploring the full range of available leisure learning opportunities. Interestingly, their first experience is close to home, within a six-hour driving distance for two reasons: to keep the initial financial investment low and to ensure that the opportunity to "retreat" exists if they are not enjoying themselves. This built-in safety factor (knowing they can leave) is extremely important to the novice participant. With regard to the program, the experimenter is interested in variety and in traveling with a partner, and they share a c o m m o n fear about the academic level of the learning experience, as these comments illustrate: "This is m y first Elderhostel, and it is an activity site [golf]. The next time I'd like to try the other one [classroom] just for comparison" [or] "We chose this site because we didn't w a n t one that was too intellectual; we thought this w o u l d be fun" [or] "For our first one we kind of w a n t e d to dip our toe in the water a little bit and didn't w a n t to bite off something that w o u l d make the experience distasteful, so we t h o u g h t . . . w h a t can we do? We can walk! [huge laughter from the focus group participants]...and it's not a far drive to get to that spot." The adventurers are people who are willing to go anywhere and try anything. They are looking for new experiences in learning, socializing, a n d travel. As one participant exclaimed, "I'm very excited about the program; all horizons are opened. I'm flexible with m y decision making, though I do still find m o u n t a i n s and water appealing."
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Typology Some adventurers even confessed to sacrificing the quality of accommodations just to enjoy a new experience, and it was not uncommon to hear, "I'm the kind of person who likes to try something different. I can't say exactly which program I'm choosing, but it's something that I've never done before, and it would be interesting." The content-committed participant is willing to travel anywhere to find a site with a program that supports his or her specific learning interest. This person is interested in quality instruction at a university level and in meeting people who share his/her passion. The contentcommitted would rather wait until their subject becomes available, than attend a site with subject areas of less interest. One genealogist indicated that he chose the site specifically because the subject area supported his research interests. The location had an added benefit of furthering his personal family history; however, had the lecture topics not been directly relevant, he would have waited to register for a future program that was more appropriate. The opportunist is the sixth and final type of participant identified in this study. This person is not interested in the organization or program offerings. The opportunist sticks out like a sore thumb, is labeled a fraud, and is often ostracized by the people who are the truly committed. As Alain described, "Oh yes, you can spot a fraud a mile away. True Elderhostelers don't appreciate these types of people filling the places. We were at one site where this person used Elderhostel as a cheap room and board for a house-hunting trip and showed up only for meals. This is not good."
The Strength of Typology This typology describes six types of leisure learners from one organization. The simplicity of a typology is part of its beauty, synthesizing complex phenomena its strength. As Houle's (1961) tri-part typology of adult learners has demonstrated, typologies are not perfect, but they do enhance understanding, stimulate further research, and offer a way for organizations to gain new insights about
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Typology the behaviours, attitudes, or characteristics of their participants. This information will ultimately help in developing, sustaining, and marketing programs that are both relevant and responsive to the needs of the participants. Intuitively, the research team involved in this study feels this typology has room to grow. However, it is a starting place that opens the door to many exciting opportunities. For Elderhostel, this study provides a new base of information on which to understand their participants. To other leisure education organizations and the research community, this study provides a foundation of six types of leisure learner that can serve as a base for future investigators to re-examine and challenge this typology with different populations in various organizational settings.
About the author: Nancy Arsenault is a doctoral candidate in the Faculty of Education at McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
References Adair, S. R., and Mowsesian R. (1993). "The Meaning and Motivations of Learning during the Retirement Transition," Educational Gerontology 19, pp. 317-330. Arsenault, N. (1996). "Understanding Older Adults in Education: Decision-Making and Elderhostel." Unpublished master's thesis, McGill University, Montreal. Arsenault, N., Anderson, G. and Swedburg, R. (In press). "Understanding Older Adults in Education: Decision-Making and Elderhostel," Educational Gerontology. Beckman, M. D., Kurtz, D. C., and Boone, L. E. (1982). Foundations of Marketing. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Boshier, R. W. (1971). "Motivational Orientations of Adult Education Participants: A Factor Analytic Exploration of Houle's Typology," Adult Education Journal 21 (2): 3-26. Boshier, R. W., and Collins, J. B. (1985). "The Houle Typology after
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Typology Twenty-Two Years: A Large Scale Empirical Test," Adult Education Quarterly 28 (2): 89-115. Cross, K. P. (1992). Adults as Learners: Increasing Participation and Facilitating Learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Holt, D. B. (1995). "How Consumers Consume: A Typology of Consumption Practices," Journal of Consumer Research 22, pp. 1-16. Houle, C. O. (1961). The Inquiring Mind. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Kaplan, M. (1981). In E. Mills (1993). The Story of Elderhostel. London: University Press of New England. Knowlton, M (1977). "Liberal Arts: The Elderhoste| Plan for Survival," Educational Gerontology. Levinson, D. J. (1978). The Seasons of a Man's Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Meredith, G., and Schewe C. (1994). "The Power of Cohorts," American Demographics (December). Merriam, S., and Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morstain, B. R., and Smart, J. C. (1974). "Reasons for Participation in Adult Education Courses: A Multivariate Analysis of Group Differences," Adult Education 26 (2): 83-98. Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic Research: Design, Methodology and Applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Rice, K. D. (1986). "Factors which Influence Older Adults to Participate in Education: The Elderhostel Experience in Atlantic Canada." Unpublished master's thesis, McGill University, Montreal. Romaniuk, J. G., and Romaniuk, M. (1982). "Participation Motives of Older Adults in Higher Education: The Elderhostel Experience," The Gerontologist 22 (4): 364-368. Scanlan, C. S., and Darkenwald, G. G. (1982). "Identifying Deterrents to Participation in Continuing Education," Adult Education Quarterly 34 (3): 155-166. Sheehy, G. (1974). Passages. New York: Dutton and Company. Sheehy, G. (1995). New Passages: Mapping Your Life across Time. Toronto: Random House. Swedburg, R. B. (1991a). "Elderhostel Canada: Ten Years of Growth, 1979-80 to 1989-90." Paper presented at the New Horizons in Tourism and Hospitality Education, Training and Research Conference, Calgary, AB, Canada. Swedburg, R. B. (1991b). "Reaching Out to the Senior Market: A Tourism and Hospitality Industry Perspective." Unpublished manuscript, Concordia University, Montreal. Swedburg, R. B. (1992). "Elderhostel: Lifelong Learning and Leisure Education," in R. Rothschad (ed.), Aging and Leisure in the 1990's. Reston, VA: AALR. Wlodkowski, R. J. (1993). Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
