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The International Year Book of Education - Vol. X X I V . Geneva/Paris:

B.I.E./Unesco 1962. Publ. No. 249. xxiv + 544 pp. FS 20.--, FF22.50, $ 6.50. This is, of course, primarily a reference book and as such it is invaluable; although the student who turns to it for reference must be careful to distinguish between expressed hopes and achieved realities. Nevertheless, although few will treat it in this way, it is possible by glancing through the entries from comparable countries to get at least a superficial view of what have been the main trends of interest and development in 1962. I n Western European countries it is easy to see at least three very widespread trends. There is much reform of administration going on. This has been imposed partly b y the very rapid expansion in the number of school pupils, the phenomenon christened in France l'explosion scolaire and identified in England as the bulge and the trend, and partly by growing recognition of the importance of technical education. Perhaps for the same reasons there is an almost universal trend both to lengthen the period of secondary education and to postpone the age of commitment to specialised or segregated courses. Finally there is the recurrent reference to the shortage of teachers, particularly of Mathematics teachers. This shortage still appears to be almost universal and underlines the seriousness of statements from some developing countries that they expect to rely for some years to come on teachers from overseas. Educational aid clearly plays an important part in the programmes of these countries but this type of aid may be very difficult to supply. Aid in school building is presumably easier and though there are a number of omissions in the national reports from South America several of them refer to aid of this type provided through the Alliance for Progress. I t is significant of this contradiction t h a t the report from Mall should state, that the immediate problem in teacher supply is to meet the shortage produced by the pace of school building. A. D. C. PETERSON, Oxford

Educational Planning. G e n e v a / P a r i s : B . I . E . / U n e s c o 1962. P u b l . No. 242. pp. 193, F s 9 . - - , F F 10.50, $ 3 . - - . Recommendations x934-z96o. G e n e v a / P a r i s : B . I . E . / U n e s c o 1962. P u b l . No. 222. F S . 8 . - - . The International Bureau of Education has a distinguished record of achievement in the field of comparative education. Established in Geneva, its first International Conference on Public education was held in 1934. Similar conferences were held until 1939 when the war interrupted this aspect of its work. The first post-war conference was held in March 1946, and from 1947 on, Unesco and the I.B.E. have been jointly responsible for convening annual conferences attended by duly authorized delegates of m a n y governments. From the start the International Bureau of Education was conceived as a fact-gathering agency of the kind envisaged b y Jullien de Paris early in the nineteenth century. The dissemination of this infor-

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mation in reports of annual conferences, in its International Yearbooks, bibli~ ographies and numerous other publications, largely it should be said under the inspiration of its Deputy Director Pedro RosseU6, has been of immense value to workers in comparative and international education. The fact t h a t Recommendations 1934-I96o and Educational Planning are numbered respectively 222 and 242 in the list of the Bureau's publications testifies to the volume of the Bureau's work. The first is a fascinating document. I t gives direct support to the view sometimes advanced t h a t it takes at least thirty years for an idea in education to find practical expression in the schools. So many of the proposals made in the thirties are only now being formulated in national legislation. Indeed the pendulum has had time to swing not only a long way in the direction of the proposals made b u t back again to a more central position. There is no doubt t h a t the recommendations presented to Ministries of Education throughout the world as "practicable suggestions for educational advance" (page 7) represent the aspirations and intentions of forwardlooking educationists. Doubtless, as Professor J. Piaget the Director of I.B.E. writes in his introduction, they "constitute a kind of international charter or code of public education" (page 7) in which the high ideals of educational polity are stated in their most general terms. They represent then a pattern of alms on which policy should be based rather than detailed statements which could be in practical terms applied directly to any national system of education. Indeed there was specific recognition of the fact t h a t "the diversity of circumstances imposes a different organization in different countries" (page 20) as early as 1935. Usually the recommendations to ministries are preceded by an analysis in very general terms of the conditions which make a review of policy necessary. Thus the selection of topics reflects very much the on-going climate of opinion and debate in informed circles. Broad distinctions can be made between the following aspects of education: (a) the stages of education - pre-school, primary, and secondary, and the organization of each stage; (b) curricular organization; (c) methods of teaching selected subjects; (d) aspects of teacher training, recruitment, salary and certification; and (e) inspection. No doubt each reader will t u r n to those aspects of educational policy which interest him most, b u t of very general importance in the advance of education are those recommendations which deal with the prolongation of compulsory education (no. 1 and 32), equality of opportunity for secondary education (no. 19) and teacher training (nos 4, 5, 36, 38, 45, 49). If each aspect is taken in turn, several important uses may be made of the Recommendations. I t shows the consensus about intentions; it reveals changes of opinion after the war compared with pre-war views, and it reveals the different loci of interest over the years. The recommendations should be seen in relationship to the comparative studies associated with the annual conferences. These a t t e m p t to draw together from m a n y countries data relevant to the topic in question. Usually the information is acquired b y sending out a questionnaire to Ministries of education. The replies are p u t together in a systematic way both in terms of aspects of the topic and country b y country so t h a t the comparisons can be made without judgements being made on the values involved. Educational Planning represents one such comparative study. The data were obtained from the replies of 75 Ministries of education to the questionnaire sent out to them b y the International Bureau of Education. I t was divided into various

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parts designed to elicit information about: - 1. types of planning, 2. agencies responsible for educational planning, 3. the preparation, implementation and evaluation of plans, 4. the training of staff to carry out planning, 5. the benefits derived from international action, and 6. future plans. The general synoptic and comparative study is presented under slightly different headings revealing the degree to which different countries have special agencies for educational planning and the way in which plans are formulated, adopted and implemented. This survey makes a few generalisations possible and provides evidence to show t h a t the obstacles to realistic planning are to be found in the lack of funds, experience and qualified staff (page XLIX) and in addition in "a lack of the statistical data and documentary material necessary for reliable forecasting and future provision" (page XLIX). There is revealed also a psychological reluctance in m a n y countries to accept the notion of planning as desirable. Undoubtedly some of the prejudices against planning are due to terminological differences of interpretation b u t some of the objections are to processes which as yet have been less precisely analysed than is desirable. Within the framework of policy formulation, adoption, and implementation there is need for m a n y more analytical studies concerning the processes involved in planning and the skills and data needed if they are to succeed. Educational Planning demonstrates that whilst the problem is recognized in most countries and m a n y governments have set up agencies through which planning can be attempted, there is throughout the world a shortage of trained personnel and a lack of qualified and specialised staff. The great need is for inter-disciplinary teams of experts who can consider the problems of planning in societies committed to democratic procedures. I n fine, there is much value in bringing together the recommendations of people concerned with educational policy. A very clear picture is, in fact, gained of the general intentions of progressive educators over the years. I n particular, in Recommendations attention might be drawn to No. 40 - the financing of education, No. 42 - school inspection, No. 50 - preparation and issuing of general secondary school curricula, Nos 37 and 38 - the status of teachers, No. 36 and 38 - the training of teachers, and No. 32 - compulsory education and its prolongation. These touch upon aspects of policy which are of central importance to most educators and can be regarded as general policy statements which will undoubtedly find expression in a practical way in m a n y countries in the fairly near future. Educational Planning, on the other hand, tends to reveal the nature and difficulties of the problem associated with the rational development of education, and can be seen as complementary to the Recommendations in so far as it deals with the organizations and institutions through which nations are at the moment attempting to meet presentday demands in education. BRIAN HOLMES, London

SCHNEIDER, CHRISTIAN W . , Neue Erziehung und Schulwesen in Frankreich, Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer 1963, pp. 167. DM 18.--. Voir clair dans le maquis des r6formes p~dagogiques frangaises, de 1930 ~ nos jours, n'est pas chose ais6e. D'une part, le concept "6ducation nouvelle" est ambigu car il ne prend sa signification v~ritable que dans le contexte de la philosophic

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6ducationnelle de ses d6fenseurs. D'autre part, les mouvements p6dagogiques ne se succ~dent pas en un ordre scrupuleux, a t t e n d a n t pour nattre que le pr6c6dent s'6teigne; ils se ctlevauchent, s'influencent, se combattent pour des motifs avou$s qui sont presque toujours faux. Car, dans le d6bat, la science de l'~ducation joue u n r61e bien modeste - quand il n'est pas nul - A c6t6 des autres forces agissantes. I1 suffit de rappeler, ~ titre d'exemple, l'importance et les vicissitudes du Plan Langevin-Wallon. On saura donc gr6 g C. W. Schneider de s'~tre fait l'historien de ces 30 derni~res ann6es de la p6dagogie fran~aise. Etranger, il a dispos6 d ' u n d6tachement suffisant pour parler des idles sans passion, et d ' u n 61oignement assez grand pour percevoir les lignes de charpente. Apr~s avoir fair le point de la situation p6dagogique aux environs de 1930, l'auteur envisage d'abord la p6riode 1930-1940. P e n d a n t cette d6cennie - qui connut 25 gouvernements diff6rents - les efforts de r6formes institutionnelles se soldent par un bilan assez maigre. Mais les grandes id6es qui prendront corps de 1940 ~ 1947, la p6riode de la R6sistance et de la r6novation nationale, sont en gestation. Quand finit la derni~re guerre mondiale, il semble que la France va r6aliser la v6ritable d6mocratisation de l'enseignement et la r6forme complete des structures scolaires, et donner ~ la p6dagogie scientifique la place qui lui revient. On sait que bien des espoirs furent d6~us par la suite. Aussi C. W. Schneider doit-il s'attacher, pour la p6riode 1947-1959, k une s~rie de ph6nom~nes quise pr6sentent surtout comme des maillons d6tach6s de la chatne forg6e p e n d a n t la guerre, mais n'en restent pas moins des gages de progr~s et de r6novation. L'auteur a limit6 son 6tude g l'enseignement g6n6ral, se r6servant d'envisager les autres aspects darts un travail ult6rieur. Nous comprenons tr~s bien les raisons qui Font pouss6 ~ agir ainsi. Mais nous le suivons moins volontiers quand il se refuse ~ consid6rer les influences qui s'exercent de l'ext6rieur du pays sur la p6dagogie fran~aise (p. 23). Ceci entratne, mon avis, u n appauvrissement regrettable et une sch6matisation qui ne rend pas assez justice ~ l'effort de r6flexion et d'adaptation de t a n t d'enseignants frangais, surtout pendant les armies 1930-1940. Sans sous-estimer l'importance de R. Cousinet, de B. Profit et de Freinet, il semble toutefois indispensable d'6tudier la p6n6tration et l'influence des id6es de J. Dewey, de Clapar~de, de Decroly et de t a n t d'autres qui, parfois sans laisser de signature nette, ont cependant exerc6 une action consid6rable sur route la pens6e p6dagogique frangaise. N6anmoins, et bien qu'il s'adresse au premier chef ~ des lecteurs allemands, le livre de C. W. Schneider int~ressera aussi tous ceux qui d6sirent retrouver, retrac6s sous forme concise, les heurs et les malheurs de trois d6cennies de lutte pour une 6ducation meilleure en France. G. DE LANDSHEERE, Liege

HAUSMANN, GOTTFRIED e t al., Internationale pddagogische H e i d e l b e r g : Quelle u n d M e y e r 1963, pp. 169. D M 1 4 . - - .

Kontakte,

Ce cinqui~me volume de la s6rie que L. Froese, G. Hausmann, H. RShrs et W. Schultze consacrent k l'6ducation compar6e et k la p6dagogie ~trang~re n'est en fait que la publication des m61anges offerts au Professeur Walther Merck pour son 70e anniversaire.

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On salt combien il est difficile de rendre bri~vement compte de tels ouvrages, surtout s'ils ne sont pas strictement centr6s sur la m~me id6e-pivot. C'est une lois de plus le cas, car sous la couverture de ces "Contacts internationaux", on rencontre la lois de l'6ducation compar6e, de la th6orie p6dagogique et de la technique d'assistance 6ducationnelle. Le nom des collaborateurs permettra cependant de deviner la richesse de ces m61anges: K. W. Bigelow, American Responses to A/rican Educational Needs: With Consideration o[ some Problems o/InternationalAid; Fritz Bohnsack, Die pddagogische Bedeutung des Spiels in A. S. Makamnkos Kollektiv ; Hans Espe, Die Au]gabe~r der Vergleichenden Emiehungswissenscha]t bei der Neugestaltung des technischen Bildungswesens; Leonhard Froese, Vom An[ang der Pddagogil~; l~oger 'Gal, Incidences des Mdthodes Actives sur les programmes, les examens, les horaires, le matdriel didaaique et la ]ormation des maitres; Nicholas Hans, Nationalism and Education in non-European Countries; Gottfried Hausmann, An[dnge Vergleichender Erziehungswissenscha]t; Isaac L. Kandel, Equality o[ Educational Opportunity and its Problems; M. J. Langeveld, School and Education in an AHluent Society; H e r m a n n R6hrs, Die internationale VersMndigung als pddagogisches Problem; Friedrich Schneider, Historische Pddagogik und Vergleichende Emiehungswissenscha/t; Walter Schultze, Hochschulprobleme in Entwicklungsldndern, dargestellt am Beispiel der Universitdt Kabul; et Hans Wenke, Das Studium der

Ausldnder in Deutschland. G. DE LANDSHEERE, Liege

JOHNSTON, HERBART, A Philosophy o[ Education. N e w Y o r k : M c G r a w H i l l 1963. pp. 362. $ 6.50. Zuf~llig lag die soeben erschienene unver~nderte zweite Auflage yon William H. Kilpatrick, Philosophy o] Education, (Mac Millan 1951, 1963) zusammen mit Johnstons Philosophie der Erziehung auf meinem Schreibtisch. Wer hiitte da der Versuchung widerstehen k6nnen, diese Vertreter fundamental entgegengesetzter Lebensanschauungen miteinander prinzipiell zu konfrontieren. Beide Biicher stlmmen darin iiberein, dass in einem einleitenden Kapitel die Grundlagen einer Lebensphilosophie, eines ,,Outlook upon Life" entwickelt werden. Auch wenden beide sich an dasselbe Publikum: Lehrer, Erzieher, Studenten der PAdagogik. D a n n aber h6rt die ~lbereinstimmung auf. Denn ein schi~rferer Kontrast als zwischen Johnstons und Kilpatricks Erziehungsphilosophie ist kaum denkbar. Wie radikal der Kontrast ist, wird deutlich an der Behauptung Kilpatricks (S. 16): ,,Die wissenschaftliche induktive Bewegung, die mit Galileo einen Anfang nimmt, schlielbt definitiv das vor-wissenschaftliche Zeitalter ab. Wir meinen, dab diese wissenscha/tliche Methode ffir das Erzielen zuverl~ssiger Schlfisse u n u m s t r i t t e n die beste ist, sodal3 wit es schwer linden, das typische Denken der vor-wissenschaftlichen Zeit zu begreifen. Das Experiment auf dem Turin yon Pisa hat die Welt neu erschaffen, nicht n u r auf dem Gebiet der Physik, sondern in Hinblick auf alles, einschlielblich der Auffassung, die der Mensch yon sich selbst hatte". Dieses Zitat aus dem Buche eines Jiingers John Deweys ist sehr geeignet, dem Johnston-Buch ein spezifisches Relief zu verleihen. Denn nach dem Denken Johnstons hat j ener Augenblick in Pisa die Anthropologie des Menschen iiberhaupt nicht beriihrt. I n seinem Buch liegt uns ein musterhaftes Beispiel "vor-wissenschaft-

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lichen Denkens" vor, ein Beispiel yon deduktiver Argumentation auf Grund yon an sich evidenten Prinzipien, wie sie yon Aristoteles zu einer geschlossenen logischen und metaphysischen TotalitAt zusammengefaBt und yon Thomas Aquinas theologisch-christlich umgebaut sind. Besagt dies nun, daB m a n dieses Buch als AntiquitAt einfach beiseite legen kann ? I m Gegenteil, es wird jeden PAdagogen fesseln, der mit der Frage ringt, ob, und wenn ja, auf welche Weise die Direktiven der Erziehungspraxis aus der wissenschafflichen Theorie hervorgehen. Johnston 1ABt fiber seinen weltanschaulichen Standort keinen Zweifel und entwickelt auf dieser Grundlage alsdann eine musterhafte Systematik, die es psychologisch begreiflich macht, daB jahrhundertelang, yon Aristoteles bis Newton und darfiber hinaus, die deduktive Methode intellektuell die gr6Bten Denker befriedigen konnte. Es gibt in diesem Buch Ausspriiche, mit denen der Leser, der den theologischanthropologischen Standort des Verfassers nicht teilt, sich nicht identifizieren kann. Sie werden hier kurz zusammengefaBt: Das Lebensziel ist die Kenntnis Gottes. Die Erziehung ist der ProzeB, der dieses Ziel mit Hilfe der Kirche anstrebt. Auf Grund seiner aristotelischen und thomistischen Anschauungen betrachtet der Verfasser die Entwicklung der intellektuellen Tugenden als die primAre Aufgabe der Schule. Da die sacra doarina die h6chste fibernafiirliche Wahrheit einschlieBt, sind konfessionelle Schulen aus intellektuellen Grfinden vorzuziehen. Denn die Wahrheit ist n u r aus der Kenntnis der letzten Ursache v611ig verst~ndlieh. Das erste Kapitel The Nature ot Philosophy ot Education gibt eine ausgezeichnete Einfiihrung in die Aufgabe der Erziehungsphilosophie, ihre Relation zu den empirischen Wissenschaften, und ihre Stelle in der Hierarchie der Wissenschaften. Sie wird als ein Tell der sozialen Ethik gesehen, und ist als solche eine praktische Wissenschaft. I m vierten Kapitel unterscheidet der Autor vier Bedeutungen des Wortes education und behandelt hauptsAchlich die dritte und vierte Bedeutung: die Erziehung in der Schule und im Klassenzimmer. Der S t a n d p u n k t des Autors betr. vom Staat unterstiitzter konfessioneller Schulen wird in den U.S.A., wo m a n an einer absoluten Scheidung yon Kirche und Staat festzuhalten pflegt, scharfe Kritik ausl6sen. Es ist zu bedauern, daB der Autor die L~sungen nicht kennt, jedenfalls nicht nennt, die m a n in den verschiedenen europAischen LAndern anstrebt. Besonders Holland hat eine L6sung gefunden, die jeden, der demokratisch denkt, befriedigt, und die als gerecht empfunden wird nicht n u r in Hinsicht auf jede Gesinning, sondern auch fiir alle, die nicht Verfechter einer konfessionellen Schule sind. Die niederlitndische Situation ist gegriindet auf dem Prinzip, daB die prim~Lre Erziehungspflicht bei den Eltern liegt und der Staat hier dienend und ausftihrend ist. Das ist auch Johnstons Auffassung, die, wie die nieder1Andische Situation nachweist, auch yon Nicht-Katholiken unterschrieben werden kann. Der Rahmen dieser Besprechung 1AI3• es nicht zu, tiefer auf andere durch den Autor angertihrte wichtige Themen einzugehen: wie z.B. die Ausbreitungs-Notwendigkeit der liberal education in einem technologischen Jahrhundert, die Zielsetzung des Unterrichts und des Lehrplans, den ProzeB des Lernens und des Unterrichtens, die F u n k t i o n des Lehrers. Die Auseinandersetzung mit Erziehungsphilosophien anderer Herkunft im n e u n t e n Kapitel scheint mir nicht v611ig befriedigend. Eine prinzipielle Auseinandersetzung mit Deweys Philosophie ware notwendig, der Autor halt sie aber im

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Rahmen seines Buches nicht fiir ausfiihrbar. Er hat sich daher beschr~inkt auf R. Ulich, I. Scheffler, F. C. Gruber, H. Broudy u.a. DaB Jonhston in J. Brubachers Terminologie zu den essentialists geh6rt, ist aul3er Frage. Dal3 dutch ein solches Etikett die Lektiire dieses Buches ffir den, der sich nicht so nennt, keine stimulierenden Gesichtspunkte bietet, k6nnte m a n bestimmt nicht behaupten. HELENA W. F. STELLWAG,Amsterdam

SOCHODOLSKI, BOGDAN, Grundlagen der marxistischen Erziehungstheorie. Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften-Paflstwowe wydawnictwo naukowe. Warszawa 1961, pp. 567.

Der international bekannte polnische Piidagoge Bogdan Suchodolski u n t e r n i m m t es in seinem zwischen 1950 und 1957 entstandenen Buch, die - wie er bemerkt bisher "ganz in Dunkel gehiillte babnbrechende Bedeutung der Lehren yon Marx und Engels auf dem Gebiet der PAdagogik" in ausfiihrlicher historischer und systematischer Untersuchung herauszustellen, um damit gleichzeitig der gegenw~irtigen Theorie der Erziehung in den sozialistischen Liindern eine feste Grundlage zu lieiern. I n dreifachem Ansatz werden 1) die plidagogisch relevanten Aussagen von Marx und Engels in ihrer historischen Entwicklung dargelegt, 2) bestimmte Grundprobleme der marxistischen Philosophie und Revolutionstheorie im Hinblick auf ihre p~dagogischen Auswirkungen untersucht, sowie 3) yon dieser Basis aus die Positionen einer marxistischen Kulturtheorie, Anthropologie und Psychologie unter pAdagogischem Aspekt ausfiihrlich entwickelt. Das Buch soll gleichzeitig dem ,,Kampf gegen die biirgerliche P~dagogik" dienen und die prinzipielle 0berlegenheir des Marxismus auf p~idagogischem Gebiet nachweisen. Suchodolslds Buch stellt zweifellos den bisher bedeutendsten Versuch dar, eine marxistische Theorie der Erziehung aus den Gedanken yon Marx und Engels nicht nur zu deduzieren, sondern wirldich philosophisch zu begriinden. So entsteht ein Werk yon imponierender Geschlossenheit, das geeignet erscheint, eine wirtdich bis an die Prinzipien vordringende und nicht blol3 an der Oberfl~che haftende Diskussion anzuregen. Bei der Vielzahl der aufgeworfenen Probleme k a n n sich eine kritische Rezension n u t auf einige wenige Fragen beschrAnken. Suchodolski stellt mit Recht den dialektischen Charakter der Marxschen Erziehungsauffassung heraus, der lange Zeit hindurch yon der im nachmarxistischen Sozialismus dominierenden Milieutheorie verkannt wurde. Von da aus gelangt er zu einer scharfen Abgrenzung einmal gegeniiber einer idealistischen ,,BewuBtseinspiidagogik", zum anderen gegenfiber einer soziologischen Anpassungslehre. Als den Fundamentalbegriff der marxistischen Piidagogik hebt der Verfasser die ,,revolutioniire Praxis" hervor, d.h. ,,ein Handeln, in dem sich das Bewul3twerden der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungsgesetze mit der Energie und dem Willen aktiver Teilnahme an der Gestaltung der Entwicklung verbindet". Ffir die Erziehung erwachse daraus ,,die Verpflichtung, mit der revolutioniiren Praxis der Arbeiterbewegung ein Biindnis einzugehen", da dies den ,,einzigen Weg zur wirklichen Heranbildung neuer Menschen" darstelle. Als Hauptproblem der sittlichen Erziehung des einzelnen wird daher auch das ,,Problem der Teilnahme der Menschen am Kampf um den geschichtlichen Fortschritt" angesehen, da ,,die wesentlichsten Erziehungsprobleme des Individuums,

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einschliel31ich seiner streng privaten Angelegenheiten, n u t dutch eine bewul3te u n d verantwortungsvolle Teilnahme am gesellschaftlichen Leben gel6st werden k6nnen". An dieser Stelle wird sichtbar, wie der dialektische ErziehungsprozeI3 als Wechselwirkung von individuellen und gesellschaftlichen Kr~iften in der marxistischen Erziehungstheorie unter dem Einflul3 der kollektiven Dominante letztlich doch zu nichts anderem fiihrt als zu einer Unterordnung der PAdagogik unter angebliche ,,objektive Notwendigkeiten" der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung. Die Zweideutigkeit der Anspriiche der Gesellschaft an die Erziehung t r i t t yon bier aus gar nicht in das Blickfeld der Piidagogik. Suchodolskis Auseinandersetzung mit den verschiedenen Ricbtungen der ,,biirgerlichen" P~idagogik, die neben bedenkenswerten kritischen Bemerkungen auch manche unzuliissige Vereinfachungen enthiilt, h~itte an lJberzeugungskraft gewonnen, wenn sie denselben Mal3stab der Kritik auch gegeniiber den eigenen, marxistischen Positionen angewendet hiitte, a n s t a t t hier eine ein fiir allemal giiltige Wahrheit zu postulieren Der fiir die P~idagogik eminent fruchtbare Ansatz von Marx, den das Buch des Warschauer P~idagogen herausstellt, verliert n~imlich in dem Mal3e an Wert, wie er zu einem Dogma erstarrt. OSKAR _A_NWEILER,H a m b u r g

VAN PRAAG, H . , Pedagogiek. I n Theorie en in Praktijk. Z e i s t : D e H a a n S t a n d a a r d B o e k h a n d e l 1960. pp. 158. ( P h o e n i x pockets). E n retra~ant l'histoire et les probl~mes de l'dducation, H. van Praag souligne que de tous temps, l'dducation rut considdrde comme une tgche d'amour, de patience et de sagesse. Cependant, les voies suivies pour conduire l'enfant ~ la maturitd et faire de lui u n adulte dquilibrd, sont souvent tr~s diffdrentes et les mdthodes appliqudes varieront en fonction du temps, de l'gge de l'enfant, des ndcessitds sociales et des iddologies. Tr~s souvent critiqude, l'dducation naturelle prdconisde par Rousseau n ' e n a pas moins inspir6 de grands pddagogues comme Fr6bel, Montessori et Decroly qui, voulant dduquer les enfants darts leur milieu, imaginbrent la crdation de j ardins d'enfants. Le sentiment que les pdriodes sensibles du ddveloppement psychologique ne peuvent ~tre sdpaxdes de l'arri~re-plan culturel, conduisit ~ l'dducation existentielle qui commence ~ la maison et se conforme aux besoins du temps. L'auteur en arrive ~ comparer l'6ducation familiale k l'6ducation scolaire. La premiere forme le sentiment; la seconde l'intellect. Mais on c0nstate qu'A la suite de certains imp6ratifs de la vie moderne, l'6cole reprend de plus en plus en mains certaines tAches d u foyer quoiqu'elle ne pourra jamais s'y substituer enti~rement. L'auteur attire d'ailleurs l'attention sur le besoin d'amour maternel et le r61e du p~re dans le d6veloppement spirituel de l'enfant. E n entrant A l'6cole, l'enfant quitte le monde du sentiment et de la fantaisie pour p6n6trer dans celui de la m6moire et de l'intelligence. I1 sera d6sormais initi6 k la tradition des cultures et sera pr6par6 au grand monde. E x a m i n a n t la situation actuelle de la p6dagogie, u n chapitre est consacr6 k la pddagogie di]]drentielle. Celle-ci s'occupe de l'6ducation des diff6rentes facult6s ou valeurs humaines telles que l'6ducation intellectuelle, l'6ducation esth6tique,

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~thique, sociale, sexuelle, religieuse et technique. Ne p o u v a n t traiter tous ces sujets, l'auteur se limite k deux sujets complexes qui donnent une id6e des divers aspects de la p6dagogie diff6rentielle n o t a m m e n t le renouveau de l'enseignement et l'dducation

clans l' esprit europden. L'6cole dolt 6voluer en fonction du temps et des besoins de la soci6t6. Actuellement, les 6ducateurs attachent de plus en plus d'importance k l'environnement ext6rieur et int6rieur de l'6cole. E n outre, les 61~ves prennent de plus en plus part ~ l'organisation de l'6cole et collaborent au programme et ~ la vie communautaire. L'auteur attire l'attention sur l'dducation clans l'esprit europden. La culture europ6enne est n6e de la fusion des civilisations gr6co-romaine, judo-chr6tienne, humanitaire et technique qui ont dans chaque pays une 6volution propre. L'Europe dolt r6aliser son programme d'6ducation culturelle en t e n a n t compte des exigences de notre temps. Van Praag donne ensuite u n apergu de deux formes sp6ciales de l'6ducation n o t a m m e n t la r66ducation et l'6ducation des adultes. La rapidit6 dans l'6volution des probl~mes actuels rend notre 6poque particuli~rement difficile pour les enfants. Une nouvelle science, en est n6e qui s'occupe de la r66ducation et qui porte le nom de pddothdrapie, dont les principaux repr6sentants sont Don Bosco, Father Flannagan, Miss Payne et Homer Lane. Quant aux adultes, ils doivent eux aussi suivre l'6volution, m~me dans leur propre profession. Si la forme d'6ducation est importante, la personnalit6 de l'6ducateur l'est peut~tre encore plus. Van Praag y attache u n grand prix et en fixant ce qu'il consid~re comme essentiel pour un 6ducateur, il dira qu'il doit ~tre u n exemple rant par sa personnalit6, ses gestes et ses paroles que par la mani~re dont il se conduit. C'est en cela surtout que r6side sa responsabilit6. J. O. J. VANDEN BOSSCHE, Hambourg

WITTENBERG,

ALEXANDER,

E r n s t K l e t t 1963, pp.

Bildung

xvIII+313.

und

Mathematik.

Stuttgart:

D M 34.50.

This book discusses the teaching of Mathematics within the framework of Secondary education in general. The author believes that the true aims of Secondary school (Gymnasium) teaching are in danger of being obliterated by hordes of specialists each trying to crowd the curriculum with his own particular subject without due regard to the overall result. He insists that the aim of the Secondary school must be humanistic - to endow the student with a well rounded and open-minded personality. All professional education should come later. As far as Mathematics is concerned, the author believes t h a t a curriculum which is in conformity with this fundamental purpose should be based on the teaching of elementary geometry, beginning with the most concrete parts and going on from there to a more profound appreciation of the heuristic, intellectual, and historical aspects of the subject. This approach is developed in considerable detail, emphasis being placed on intuition, with a conscious disregard for the deductive method. Later chapters deal with the introduction of irrational numbers and with the problem of mathematical existence. I n this connection, the author's platonism is, perhaps, not unrelated to his disdain for the axiomatic method.

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115

There is, in this book, an abundance of thoughtful and stimulating material. There is also much that is irrelevant and irritating. For example, the reader is not only told repeatedly t h a t the author is marching with the angels of true Democracy b u t also that those with whom he disagrees are, consciously or unwittingly, in league with the dark forces of Totalitarianism. The special targets of Professor Wittenberg's criticism are several groups of educators in the United States and in Western Europe who have advocated a radical revision of the Secondary school curriculum in Mathematics involving both modernization of subject matter and emphasis on the axiomatic method. But whatever the flaws of the suggestions made by these educators, there can be no doubt - to use the words of Karl Gustav Jacob Jacobi - t h a t the honor of the h u m a n mind is in their thoughts no less t h a n in Professor Wittenberg's. To conclude, although this reviewer disagrees with much that is to be found in the book, he believes t h a t it is an important contribution, which deserves to be widely read and discussed. ABRAHAM ROBINSON, Los Angeles

STERN, H . H . , Foreign Languages in Primary Education. H a m b u r g : U n e s c o I n s t i t u t e for E d u c a t i o n 1963. pp. 103. D M 5 . - - . This is a comprehensive and instructive study of the subject. Part I gives general arguments, with evidence r fields ranging from the political to the neurological, in favour of early second language learning. I t is enthusiastic in approach and its conclusions are the more persuasive for being so moderately expressed. Part II, considering how this reform can best be carried out, summarizes recent and current experiments in the field. I t is here t h a t the importance of adopting a comparative approach to educational problems of this kind becomes strikingly apparent. Of the 45 countries from which data were available, 32 taught a second language at the primary level below the age of 10; so that, clearly, this practice is not the novel experiment that it might at first seem to the observer with knowledge of practice in one country only. The experiments described in this section are varied and interesting. Part I I I gives, first, recommendations for practice, based on the evidence presented in Part II. The recommendations are clear and precise and commendably make, amongst other pertinent observations on the necessity of careful planning, the important point, too often glossed over in other writings on the subject, t h a t "the task of teaching a second language to young children is skilled work. Those administrators who place too much reliance on the young child's capacity to learn another language may be misled into belittling the high level of knowledge and technique t h a t is required from the teacher". This section is concluded b y an interesting survey of research problems b y Professor Carroll and there is also a good bibliography. This study is, in fact, perhaps the most important t h a t has yet appeared in this field, giving, as it does, a comprehensive survey of the subject fromacomparative point of view; a wider view, t h a t is, t h a n those of previous studies. Its insistence, too, on the importance of planning, technique, and attention to methodology is valuable at this moment when the movement for second language teaching at primary level may well lose impetus in some countries if the initial enthusiasm

I 16

BOOK R E V I E W S - B U C H B E S P R E C H U N G E N

is not supported by disciplined planning and, in particular, by attention to methods of teaching. The section on research problems, too, is a useful reminder of the need for planned experiment and the pooling of results. Dr. Stern and the committee of experts are indeed to be congratulated on producing this most valuable study so opportunely. I t is to be hoped t h a t it will be read by all workers in the field, at any level, in countries where the teaching of a second language in the primary school is still in its early stages, and its recommendations noted, so t h a t what is, perhaps, one of the most promising and exciting developments in language teaching generally m a y flourish as it deserves. F. I. CALVERT, Durham

ROBERT,Language Testing. The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Tests. A Teacher's Book. London: Longmans 1961.32/6. LADO,

Sound methods of testing and assessments are important for teaching and research in any curriculum subject. I t is, therefore, a pleasure to be able to draw rather belatedly - the attention of linguists among the readers of this review to an excellent American book on language testing which has already become a landmark in the international literature on foreign language teaching. The author, already known to linguists through his seminal earlier work Linguistics across cultures, thinks about language learning in terms of applied linguistics in the tradition of the American school of linguistics and such authorities as Bloomfield and Fries. He rejects extravagant claims t h a t have been made by the advocates of various " m e t h o d s " and pleads for "highly controlled experiments, dealing with the effects of one variable at a time dissociated from any particular method but framed in a total rationale of the dimensions of foreign language learning and teaching". This book is, therefore, more than a manual on testing; it relates, at all stages, language testing to the theory of language teaching. I t clarifies issues which in the past have been rather muddied. Lado regards the task of language testing as threefold : (1) testing the elements of a language (sounds, intonation, stress, grammar, etc.) (2) testing the integrated skills, and (3) testing cultural understanding and educational values. The book is at its best on the first two. I t shows how tests should be designed so as to make the assessment of proficiency in a language more diagnostic and more objective than conventional language examinations can be. The final part deals in a more general way with test construction and experimental design. While this is not new to those familiar with works on mental testing, linguists m ay welcome this helpful introduction to procedures on which they are not usually as well informed as they might like to be. The book is, of course, based on American experience and therefore does not provide ready-made solutions for language testing elsewhere. B u t readers in any country will find t h a t it stimulates productive thinking on language teaching and t h a t it clarifies the problems of testing. I t m a y save weeks and months of futile groping and searching wherever language teaching is under review. H. H. STERN,Hull

ANALYSES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES

117

WlTTICH, W . A. a n d SCHILLER, C. F . , A u d i o - V i s u a l Materials. N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r Bros. 1962. pp. x x v i + 500. $ 8.75. C a h i e r s de P ~ d a g o g i e M o d e r n e , Les Techniques audio-visuelles Service de l'enseignement. P a r i s : B o u r r e l i e r 196 i. pp. 192. F F 15.60.

au

That a third edition of a successful text book for teachers has been published is almost sufficient commendation by itself. Harper and Brothers have produced for Professors Wittich and Schuller a most attractive book. The authors never patronise the less well informed reader; their text is pitched not on a purely utilitarian level like a car manual b u t is arranged to stimulate thought, to encourage teachers to apply the examples and suggestions with appropriate modifications to the particular problems in their own teaching situation; they inspire confidence by explaining some of the underlying theory and technique by reference to understandable practice; they cover very adequately and in due sequence all the accepted audiovisual material and apparatus and include a final chapter on teaching machines. This is a well illustrated book, very easy to read and to consult. The report from the Centre audio-visuel de l'Ecole Normale Supdrieure de SaintCloud is also a most interesting and useful book. I t is nearly comparable in length of text, has considerably fewer illustrations and is less t h a n half the price of the American book. But let us not be p u t off by the sober and academic lay-out. Underlying the book is the careful research, both scholastic and technical, conducted by the team of investigators at Saint-Cloud, with French resources and French teaching in mind. As in the American book, they cover the range of accepted audiovisual devices (but not teaching machines) and I think they go deeper. The general introduction, comprising nearly a quarter of the book, is stimulating and thought provoking. After this there is a section on the more technical aspects of audio-visual aids and the last half of the book deals with the application of audio-visual methods to the teaching of school subjects. Problems which very much concern the individual teacher are helpfully treated: for example, types of screen, light power of projection lamps, full or partial black-out, seating arrangement for optimum viewing. I n this connection two points struck me: first, why (on p. 66) must French translucent screens be tinted ? There are several materials available, almost clear and certainly not tinted, which give excellent results with coloured films and transparencies, admittedly very directional b u t most useful in classrooms t h a t cannot be blacked out. And secondly, why are two machines mentioned in the text and advertised at the end of the book. (Vu-graph and Vu-clair) both working on either 110 or 220 volts b u t no explanation given of the rather better light output of the lower voltage lamp ? I hope this may be taken as interested comment and not criticism. Of course it is obvious that though the teacher must learn to use his audiovisual aids effectively, as he will if he studies either book, he must have technical help to keep his machines in perfect condition, and arrangements must be made for adequate and regular servicing. I t may be that schools of the future will demand and receive more help from the machine and the technician. I t will be for us, the teachers, to see that this help enlivens, extends and enriches our relationships with our pupils and this is precisely the message of these two books. J. F. WILLATT, Durham

118

BOOK REVIEWS -- BUCHBESPRECHUNGEN

HOTYAT, FERNAND, Les Examens. Les Moyens d'Evaluation dans D o c u m e n t s p ~ d a g o g i q u e s i n t e n l a t i o n a u x de r l n s t i t u t

l'Enseignement.

de l ' U n e s c o p o u r l ' E d u c a t i o n . P a r i s : B o u r r e l i e r 1962, pp. 288. N F 12.50; D M 10. The two conferences of experts called by the Unesco Institute for Education in 1957 and 1958 to make an objective study of the problems posed by examinations and other techniques of evaluation at the primary and secondary stages produced a mass of evidence out of which Monsieur H o t y a t has fashioned this admirably clear expos6, with a m i n i m u m of technical terms and a copious bibliography which underlines vividly the magnitude of his task. After a brief historical survey, an enquiry is made into the aims of examinations for the various parties involved: teachers, pupils, parents, head teachers and society. Attention is brought to the need for reliability in examinations, and the various factors which may prejudice a fair assessment are noted. The value of the I.Q. test used alone as an indication of a child's intellectual potential is questioned. Importance is attached to the value of the teacher's report and the need for flexibility in the secondary school, permitting the reorientation of pupils who have not followed the predicted pattern. The chapter devoted to methods of evaluation quotes 43 works of reference from nine countries, reviews all the techniques of testing and comments upon their validity. The traditional written answer is found to be widely used and comes in for severe criticism. The oral examination is generally condemned and the use of standardised tests is approved. Emphasis is laid upon the need for the examining authority to know how to select the tests appropriate to their particular purpose, and the point is made t h a t assessments of personality and biographical documentation are best left to the professional psychologist. I t is generally agreed that the selection for transfer from the primary school for an academic course at the secondary school has reached a high standard, b u t little progress has yet been made in determining a pupil's potential in different branches of learning. The widespread experiments now being made in England emphasize the dictum t h a t the supreme educational injustice is to treat all children in an identical way. I t is admitted t h a t the examination which most countries demand as a criterion for a candidate's suitability for university entrance is far less successful than that for the transfer from the primary to the secondary stage. Some educationalists have advocated the total abolition of examinations, b u t this is judged unrealistic. Rather is there need to make the system more flexible with constant reappraisal of the pupils' capacities, together with a periodic review of the methods of evaluation b y research centres provided with the appropriate technical and scientific resources. These centres, in their turn, should be in touch with their counterparts in other countries. All this means t h a t in a changing world the pressure of social and economic requirements is increasing the status of the school, whose d u t y it is to guide its pupils, whatever their capacity, to achieve m a t u r i t y and to play a role in society consonant with their varied abilities. Experimental psychology and pedagogy are young b u t rapidly evolving sciences, and the plea is made that full use be made of the scientific method to replace subjective intuitive assessments by judgments which will become progressively more valid. Further evidence to support the

ANALYSES BIBLIOGRAPI-IIQUES

119

findings outlined in this valuable study can be seen in the recently published Newsom Report in England and the report of the Boulloche Commission on the Grandes Ecoles in France. SYDNEY TAYLOR, Reading GERSTENMAIER, E . , LEMBERG, E., EDDING, F . , LEMPERT, W . , SCHULTZE, W . , PIDGEON, D. A., SJ6STRAND, W . , D a s Bfldungswesenals Gegenstand d e r F o r s c h u n g . V e r S f f e n t l i c h u n g e n d e r H o c h s c h u l e f. I n t e r n a t i o n a l e P i i d a g o g i s c h e F o r s c h u n g No. 3. H e i d e l b e r g : Quelle & M e y e r 1963. pp. 312. D M 1 9 . - - . I n the useful series published by the Frankfurter Institute for International Educational Research this is an interesting issue. I t brings together a n u m b e r of articles on educational research from such points of view as sociology (Lemberg: The institutionalization of educational activity), economics (Edding: The economic study of the educational system), misunderstandings between the sociologist and the economist (Lempert). Then a number of surveys of educational research in different countries is offered (Schultze: U.S.A., Pidgeon: England and Wales, SjSstrand: Sweden, Lemberg: The Soviet Union). The documentation of the articles helps the reader to deepen his understanding of a topic and is included not only to justify the authors' points of view. The articles offering national surveys make a contribution to comparative education as well. Generally - and consequently partially not entirely true - these articles reject "child-centred" education. With the utmost objectivity the situation in Sweden has been treated b y Prof. Sj6strand, controversial as it is. The aspects chosen by Prof. Schultze from such a vast field as the U.S. are, of course, very limited b u t at the same time fair and instructive. The same applies to Prof. Lemberg's selection from Russian activities. Sources quoted in this last case are original. Pidgeon's article gives a clear and representative picture. If there are any follow-up studies published on "Maternity in Great Britain" (1948), it does not become evident where one can find them. That Edding is a first class specialist in his field needs no mentioning. The article is clear, precise and instructive. Lemberg's introductory article on the progressively sociological development of the idea of Bildung and the equally stronger tendency to a scientific development of teacher training needs careful attention. Lempert brings the sociologist's and the educationist's approach together in an article which is perhaps more limited to the German scene t h a n a n y of the other contributions. I n brief: a valuable collection of papers. M. J. LANGEVELD,Utrecht FLAVELL, JOHN H . , The developmentalpsychology o/Jean Piaget. W i t h a f o r e w o r d b y J e a n P i a g e t . T h e U n i v e r s i t y Series ill P s y c h o l o g y . P r i n c e t o n N . J . : D. v a n N o s t r a n d 1963. pp. 472. 6 8 / - . Es ist hSchst erfreulich, dab von Piagets umfangreichem Oeuvre - einem noch immer flieBenden Strom - jetzt eine ~3bersicht erscheint. Man muB sich dabei vergegenwiirtigen, dab eine solche Arbeit von verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten aus unternommen werden kann. Es hieBe das Buch falsch beurteilen, wenn m a n anderes

120

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-- B U C H B E S P R E C H U N G E N

verlangte als eine reproduktive Darstellung, die an sich schon eine groBe Leistung genannt werden darf. Der Verfasser sieht diese Schwierigkeit deuthch, indem er in seinem ersten Satz das Ziel seines Buches also andeutet, dab er nur klar und deutlich ffir Piaget sprechen m6chte. Zweitens m6chte er dann Piagets Arbeit methodologisch beurteilen und sie in ihrer Beziehung zu anderen Arbeiten betrachten. Eine groBe Bibhographie schlieBt das Buch ab. Wir m6chten den Eindruck vermeiden, dem Buch und seinem Verfasser nicht den ihnen gebfihrenden Respekt entgegenzubringen: es ist eine groBe, umfangreiche und wertvolle Arbeit geleistet worden. Aber es wird andere Bficher fiber Piaget geben, oder: es wird sie geben mtissen, denn, obschon der Verfasser eine gewisse Kritik als berechtigt anerkennen kann, ist sein kritisches VerstAndnis sehr beschrAnkt und seine Erfahrung mit eigener Kontrollarbeit afil3erst gering, ja man k6nnte sogar sagen, sie fehle. Bei einer empirischen - oder empirisch zu begrfindenden - Psychologie ist das letzte ein betrAchtlicher Mangel. Es ware nicht angebracht, hier gewisse vom Verfasser bibliographisch erwAhnte empirische Kontroll-Versuche nun als wesentliche Kritik in ihren Folgen ftir Piagets Entwicklungsbild zu deuten. Es sei uns gestattet, nut ein Beispiel m6glicher experimenteller Kontrolle anzuftihren, das nicht nur ausffihrbar sondern tatsAchlich ausgeffihrt ist (unter Aufsicht von Frau Prof. Vuyk yon Herrn G. A. Kohnstamm). Bei Kindern, die nach Untersuchungen yon Piagets Mitarbeiter Morf nicht fAhig wurden - trotz gewisser Hilfe - mit der Erlernung der Quantifikation von Inklusionsbeziehungen, kann man - so liitlt sich experimentell unumstSl31ich zeigen - bei gewissen Anderungen in der Lehrtechnik, diesen Erfolg ohne weiteres erreichen. Damit ist abet recht wesentliches gezeigt: die von Piaget konstruierte Equilibriumtheorie is* unvereinbar mit einem Erwerbungsprozess dieser Art. Obschon der Verfasser die gigantische Arbeit Piagets in ihrer Beziehung zu anderer Arbeit betrachten will, beschrAnkt sich dieses Vornehmen auf die Betrachtung einer Anzahl yon Arbeiten aus der Piaget-Orthodoxie. Dabei ist es nicht mehr nur ein Mangel sondern schon ein Fehler, wenn Wallon vSllig fehlt. Hier ware ein Vergleich direkt notwendig. Beziehungen autterhalb der Piaget-Schule fehlen abet leider. So fehlt aul3er Wallon auch Rey's grundlegendes - abet nicht Piagetkonformes - Buch tiber die praktische Intelligenz. Und, weil der Verfasser franz6sisch liest, darf man sagen: wo sind die Beziehungen z.B. zu Bourjade, ChAteau, Michaud, Merleau-Ponty, Chrysostome ? Es ware bei einem solchen Vergleich ein Bild von Piaget entstanden in natfirlicheren, dreidimensionalen Proportionen und deshalb auch mit Schatten. Wir hAtten Piaget als Tell einer Zeit gesehen, in der sich auch andere Psychologen redliche Mfihe gegeben haben. DaB die Beziehung zur zeitgen6ssischen Psychologie fehl*, bedeutet, dab auch die Beziehung zu Piagets geistigem Hintergrunde kaum angedeutet ist: wit linden Baldwin, aber es fehlt z.B. L@vy-Brtihl. So aber schwebt Piaget doch zu sehr im Medium seines eigenen Denkens. Denn sogar die zeitgenSssische Psychologie Amerikas fehlt, soweit sie nicht v611ig in das Bild Piagets paBt, yon ihm ausgegangen ist oder Piaget fSrderende Kritik getibt hat. Nur einige, wenige und willktirlich gewAhlte Beispiele: es fehlt die, durchaus auf dem Gebiete piagetartiger Forschung liegende Untersuchung von Kreezer & Dallenbach Learning the relation of opposition und m i t ihr alles Derartige; es fehlt alles yon Welch, bzw. Welch und Long tiber die hierarchische Entwicklung der Begriffsbildung, oder yon Goldstein und Scheerer fiber konkretes und abstraktes Verhalten. So kann man Piaget eine kolossale Arbeit widmen und ein rech• eindrucksvolles Bild yon ihm zeichnen und doch kritisiert

ANALYSES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES

121

werden, weil man Piaget wesentlich n u t positiv, n u t als in sich geschlossenes Ganzes h at sehen wollen und weil er sich so nur teilweise, ja einseitig und ohne Beziehung zur Psychologie seiner Zeit, betrachten 1Al3t, weil sich so auch die Probleme selbst nicht befriedigend behandeln lassen, jedenfalls nicht befriedigend ftir solche, die nicht zu den Piaget-AnhAngern geh6ren. Bei aller Anerkennung des Wertes des vorliegenden Buches, miissen wir also doch ein wesentlich anderes Buch, mindestens als ErgAnzung als notwendig betrachten und befiirworten. Der Verfasser selbst wird auf den 3. Teil seines Buches hinweisen, das er als ,,Kritik" beschreibt. Ohne Zweifel enthglt dieser 41 Seiten lange Teil manches Lehrreiche. Eine eigentlich kritische Analyse kann m an es aber nicht nennen. Es ist wesentlich eine Diskussion innerhalb der piagetschen Psychologie. SelbstverstAndlich hat der Verfasser eine Einftihrung in und eine Zusammenfassung yon Piaget geschrieben. Innerhalb dieser Beschriinkung ist das Buch eine recht lobenswerte Arbeit, die in kurzer Zeit ihren Nutzen bewiesen haben wird. M. J. LANGEVELD,U t r e c h t

ROLLER, S. et HARAMEIN,A., Enqu.gte sur les retards scolaires - Etude analytique de qudques-unes de leurs causes prdsumdes. Cahiers de P~dagogie Exp~rimentale et de Psychologie de l'Enfant. No. 19. Neuchatel: Delachaux & Niestle 1963. pp. 35.

Nouvelle S~rie

Roller and Haramein are ostensibly reporting a study (one of a series undertaken b y the educational research service of the Geneva department of public instruction) of some of the presumed causes of backwardness. However, it is clear t h a t the main interest in this presentation is the technique of analysis employed and its capability for disentangling the independent and inter-action effects of various dichotomised factors relating to home and school characteristics. The authors have adopted a technique of probit analysis advanced by Winsor C. P. (1948). 1) Their application of the technique to an educational situation is presented with a full account of computational procedures, which, as a model for others to follow, is clear, concise and leaves nothing to chance. E v e n the method of calculating a simple Chi-Square is explained. The psychometrician m ay find the exposition wanting in discussion of t h e fundamental assumptions on which transfer of the technique to the educational setting rests. For example, backwardness and normality are treated as meaningfully dichotomised categories of attainment, and discrete factors such as sex and dichotomised factors such as parental occupational level are examined for the additivity of their effects, without discussion of the statistical implications. I t m a y be t h a t this was not the place to raise such issues and the above comments should not be held to imply depreciation of the value of the publication. One may wonder why this technique was preferred to analysis of variance which would have enabled attainment to have been preserved as a continuous variable, rather than forcing it into a normal/backward dichotomy. The answer m a y lie in the intrinsic interest of a novel application of an analytic device. I t is to 1) Charles P. Winsor, Factorial analysis o] a multiple dichotomy. H u m a n Biology Vol. 20,~No. 4, 1948.

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be hoped that the work encourages further careful scrutiny of the technique and not the blind adoption of a model which is potentially all the more open to misuse for its clear exposition of computational procedures. M. A. BRIMER, Bristol

BURGER, ROBERT, Eignungs- und Erziehungsdiagnosen liar h6here Schulen mit dem Diapositiv-Z-Test, B e r n : H. H u b e r - S t u t t g a r t : E. K l e t t , 1963. pp. 193. D M 24.80. R. Burger a utilis6 le Test Z de Hans Zulliger, en application collective, comme instrument pronostique de la r6ussite des 6tudes secondaires et pour l'orientation scolaire. L'ouvrage qu'il nous pr~sente est d'une remarquable clart6, vertu que l'on trouve de plus en plus chez les jeunes chercheurs allemands de valeur. Ce ne rut pas toujours le cas de leurs a i n 6 s . . . On trouvera d'abord dans ce livre une pr~cieuse initiation au Test Z, t o u s l e s exemples ~tant emprunt6s ~ la vie scolaire : administration, analyse du contenu des r~ponses, analyse quantitative, diagnostic (aptitudes g~n~rales et personnalit6). R. Burger ne pretend nullement obtenir u n diagnostic fin, mais tache de d6montrer les qualit6s de l'6preuve collective comme instrument de d6pistage rapide. I1 n'ambitionne pas non plus d'employer le test de Zulliger comme unique instrument de s~lection. On lira avec int~rSt les notes consacr~es ~ Ia validation des conclusions (Burger avarice un coefficient de corr61ation t~trachorique de 0,81 apr~s 6 ans - N ~ 82) ainsi que les exemples de Gas individuels et les ~tudes de classes parall~les. I1 est $vident que de nombreuses autres recherches doivent encore 6tre entreprises pour 6tablir, sur le plan p6dagogique, la valeur pronostique du Test Z. Le travail de R. Burger semble constituer u n excellent point de d6part. On suivra avec prudence, mais grand int~rSt, les d~veloppements de la technique. G. DE LANDSHEERE, Liege

H•RNQVIST, K JELL a n d GRAHM, AKE, Vdgen genom gymnasiet. S t o c k h o l m : S t a t e n s O f f e n t l i g a U t r e d n i n g a r 1963. Nr. 15. pp. 315. S.K. 1 3 . - - . DAHLL6F, URBAN, Kraven pd gymnasiet. S t o c k h o l m : S t a t e n s O f f e n t l i g a U t r e d n i n g a r 1963. Nr. 22. pp. 367. S . K . 1 5 . g . Both of these books are results of studies carried out for the 1960 National Committee on the Swedish gymnasium, i.e. the higher secondary school from which students qualify for university entrance. The first book, Viigengenom gymnasia, deals with students reactions to different situations where choices must be made b y the student in connection with his gymnasium career. If students decide to go on to the gymnasium after realskola they have to choose to enter one of 5 different "sides" : general, classical, scientific, technical or commercial. For this "choice situation", national samples of 3,293 realskola students having to choose their "sides" in the gymnasium and 1,633

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actual gymnasium leavers were studied. After students have been at the gymnasium for about 2 years, a choice of special subjects within a "side" is required - a national sample of 2,944 making this choice was studied. For the "choice situation" at the end of gymnasium studies, a representative sample of 962 students, just before matriculation, was studied. The information was collected by the questionnaire method. The results are grouped under such headings as "choice frequencies and confidence in choices", "choice motives", "attitudes to school subjects", "'interests", "vocational plans", "satisfactions with choices", "guidance" and "educational practices". There is a wealth of interesting detail to be found in this book. It is worth recounting here one or two of the main results - at the end of the realskola, choosing to go on to the gymnasium rather than leaving school as well as confidence in having made the right decision is positively related to attainment in the realskola and to the occupational and educational status of the parents. Social background seems more important for confidence than for the actual choice. The choice between "sides" is correlated with attainment and social background - the classical and scientific "sides" at t r act students of a somewhat higher level in both these respects t h a n the other "sides". I t was also discovered t h a t the difference between a student's school marks in mathematics and science and his marks in languages has a predictive value for the choice of "side". Interest profiles according to groups of subjects and according to "sides" were drawn. Girls are higher than boys in artistic, verbal-linguistic and social interests the reverse is true in the technical and physical science field. The differences are small in social science, business, medicine and biological science. All "sides" except the general one have profiles with marked characteristics. Most students expressed satisfaction with their choice of "sides" and special subjects. The least satisfied were students in the classical "side" - this is related to their attitudes to the study of Latin and the rather narrow range of their vocational repertoire. In the analysis of educational practices a discrepancy was discovered between the proportion of students regarding a method as frequently used and the proportion preferring it. In general, although there were differences between school levels, "sides" and sexes, the direction of change preferred can be described in five clusters : concentration of subjects in time, specialised goals, individuahsed methods of work, unconventional teaching and written examinations. The second book, Kraven pd gymnasiet, contains the results of an analysis of demands made on the gymnasium by those who receive students for further studies or for professional work as clerks, civil servants or engineers. F r o m the point of view of method this study continues the earlier studies on the curricula in mathematics and Swedish in the comprehensive school (Dahll6f 1960). In this study, however, the entire curriculum of the gymnasium was broken down into 65 different subjects, parts of subjects or general study skills. In the first subproject (the book contains six altogether) 528 university professors (in fact, all the professors in Sweden) were asked to rate (on a 5 point scale) the importance of each of the 65 parts for the study at the university of the professor's own subject. A t the same time each professor was asked to rate (again on a 5 point scale) the standard of knowledge of most of the students taking his subject at the university in each of the 65 parts relevant to his own subject. The median ratings for each part (some parts are then grouped) of both the demands made by the university according to subject and the general standard of knowledge are shown by means of a coloured chart. Professors were also asked to rate each part for what t h e y t h o u g h t its

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importance was for general education. I n a special analysis of this it was found that professors stress the study of those subjects coming under the heading of humanities more than those coming under science. However, in a detailed analysis it was discovered that humanities professors rated scientific subjects lower than science professors from the point of view of their usefulness for general education. The second sub-project is similar to the first except that the ratings are made by one or more departments (total 1183) within companies representing public administration, trade and industry. The analysis was then carried out in such a way that 243 questionnaires referred to the general, 436 to the economic and 504 to the technical gymnasia, the three sorts of gymnasium in Sweden. The m a n y details of the analyses of these first two sub-projects make fascinating reading; although it would require too much space to report even the main findings here, they will without doubt be of interest to teachers both in universities and secondary schools in every country. The similarity of ratings between universities and public administration, trade and industry is striking. Similarly the consensus of professorial opinion as to what is useful for general education is also remarkable and surprising(l) The third and fourth sub-projects deal with ratings of the demand for different aspects of education, both now and in the future, in foreign languages, e.g. reading comprehension, understanding lectures, conversation, writing wittl the help of a grammar and dictionary, writing reports and letters without such help etc. I n Sweden the first foreign language is English, the second German and the third French. (In the new comprehensive schools, German and French are treated as second equal.) Apart from Norwegian and Danish the universities placed great stress on reading comprehension, understanding lectures and conversation in the three foreign languages - in English all other aspects were also stressed. Industry, on the other hand, again in general stressed English as very important and although still rating French as third, noted t h a t more emphasis should be given to French in the future. Spanish for industry and trade and Russian for academic studies as extra languages were stressed for the future. The fifth and sixth sub-projects deal with the amount of time (teachers ratings) spent in the general gymnasium on various aspects of Latin (accidence, syntax, vocabulary, word-formation etc.) and also with the demand for various aspects of Latin in theology and humanities at the university. The analysis shows t h a t there are few at the universities who, for basic academic studies, require those aspects of Latin which take most time in the gymnasia, i.e. the translation and interpretation of original texts. Those professors who did rate these two aspects highly were professors of theology and classical studies. DahllSf draws certain conclusions from his results and points the way to certain aspects of gymnasium curriculum reform. At the same time he emphasises that his investigations are only one part of the work on the new curriculum and whereas these studies are a utilitarian aspect of curriculum they should be supplemented by other points of view. The grouping of university "receivers" according to the similarity of structure of their demands (Dahll6f used Kendall's co-efficient of concordance (Siegel 1956) in his comprehensive school curriculum studies to work out a similarity of structure of gymnasium demands) has been left to the National Committee to do since the problem here is one of arriving at practical conclusions. Both of these books serve as excellent models for the types of empirical educational research which may be carried out by countries interested in obtaining

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empirical data about their own school systems to serve as a basis for their own school reforms. Not only does such information as has come out of these two studies facilitate educational planning, but it m a y also facilitate contacts between school and society; one important aspect of this would be t h e establishment of a sort of "feed-back" system from society to school. Although these studies are closely related to the Swedish school system the lessons to be learned from them are important; all researchers, administrators and teachers will find the ideas, methods and details of the analyses, the evaluations and conclusions of this Swedish research food for a great deal of thought. T. N. POSTLETHWAIT~, H a m b u r g

JACCARD, PIERRE, Sociologie de l'Education, P a r i s : P a y o t 1962, p. 254. NF

15.00.

Si, dans certains domaines de leurs recherches, les sociologues se montrent souvent pr6occup6s par des aspects pratiques, voire normatifs, des probl~mes qu'ils abordent, et ce, contrairement ~ leurs d6clarations de principe, ils sont par contre singuli~rement discrets, abstraits, 6vasifs lorsqu'ils 6tudient d'autres questions. I1 en est ainsi, le plus souvent lorsqu'ils abordent le probl~me de l'6ducation. C'est 1~ un reproche que l'on ne saurait faire h Pierre Jaccard. Dans l'ouvrage qu'il vient de publier, l'Auteur ne s'embarrasse pas de th6ories et de concepts abstraits. Parmi les nombreuses qualit6s que l'on peut relever dans son 6rude, nous soulignerons le fair que l'auteur aborde de front les problkmes essentiels de l'dducation, tels qu'ils se posent aujourd'hui, dans t o u s le s pays, et il s'exprime h leur sujet dans un langage clair et pr6cis. Son expos6 s'appuie sur une vaste documentation, puis6e aux sources vari6es: nationales et internationales. Les dix-huit chapitres de l'ouvrage sont subdivis6s en trois parties aux titres significatifs: La p6nurie d'ing6nieurs et de cadres form6s; Davantage d'instruction; Les probl~mes de l'6ducation de masse. On peut consid6rer que le pr6sent ouvrage fair suite au livre pr6c6demment publi6: Politique de l' emploi et de l'dducation; (Ed. Payor, Paris) ce dernier a eu un r6tentissement consid6rable, n o t a m m en t en France. Dans Sociologie de l'Education, les fairs 6voqu6s, sont emprunt6s aussi bien aux pays de l'Europe Occidentale, qu'g I'U.R.S.S., aux D6mocraties populaires, aux Etats-Unis, aux pays de l'Am6rique latine, ainsi q u ' a u x organismes internationaux: B.I.E. UNESCO, OCDE en particulier. On salt que dans • les pays, et plus particuli~rement en Europe, l'on se plaint du manque d'ing6nieurs et de techniciens. Mais en outre, ~ c e point de vue, routes les pr6visions k court ou ~ long terme, sont pessimistes: dans l'avenir on en manquera encore davantage. La situation est plus tragique encore en ce qui concerne l'enseignement, ~ t o u s l e s degr6s, et dans les diff6rentes sp6cialit6s et en particulier du c6t6 des sciences. La p6nurie se fair sentir aussi bien au point de r u e du nombre et de la qualit6 des enseignants, qu'au point de vue des locaux. Les deux sortes de p6nuries sont d'aiUeurs 6troitement interd6pendantes, et si l'on ne cherche pas ~ y parer, c'est l'avenir de la civilisation elle-meme qui se trouverait menac6. On a souvent qualifi6 notre 6poque comme 6rant ceUe des "organisateurs". Or, nous rappelle judicieusement, Pierre Jaccard, " s i l e monde romain s'est effondr6 c'est par carence d'inventeurs et non d'administrateurs". C'est le drame qui nous menace aujourd'hui. Mais il e n e s t bien d'autres. Ainsi, dans le monde ~ venir, o~ une instruction g6n6rale de base et une formation tech=

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nique, de plus en plus pouss6es, deviendront progressivement la condition m~me d'existence des individus, l'on verra apparaitre une masse d'hommes, qui, incapables de suivre le rythme impos6, deviendront inemployds parcequ'inemployables. Dans tous ces domaines, les diff6rents pays se livrent A ce que P. Jaccard nomme "la st6rile guerre froide des statistiques universitaires". I1 est 6trange de constater, que dans un monde qui, du fait de l'universalisation des sciences et des techniques devrait tendre vers l'unit6, les statistiques universitaires deviennent de moins en moins comparables. Au milieu des nombreux probl~mes soulev6s par la remarquable 6rude de Pierre Jaccard, et que nous ne pouvons malheureusement 6voquer ici, nous en retiendrons deux, pour lesquels l'auteur sugg~re des solutions pr6cises et concretes. L'ensemble de l'6difice de la civilisation moderne, repose essentiellement, voire exclusivement sur l'organisation d'un enseignement bien con~u: il faut instruire un plus grand nombre d'individus e t les instruire mieux. Les diff6rents pays doivent a v a n t t o u t "investir en h o m m e s " : c'est le gage unique de leur avenir. Or, dans la soci6t6 actuelle, les hommes dont on aurait le plus besoin, sont aussi les plus d6consid6r6s. Les enseignants, ~ tous les niveaux, sont souvent plus mal r6mun6r6s que leurs 6tudiants et 61~ves. Les ing6nieurs, les techniciens, les chercheurs, ont des situations non seulement plus mal r6mun6r6es, mais souvent aussi plus instables que celles offertes par les "services" administratifs et surtout commerciaux. Aussi les volt-on souvent s'orienter vers ces derniers services, oh leur qualification se trouve en pratique inutilis6e pour la collectivit6. Dans de nombreux pays, l'on a pris plus ou moins conscience de cet 6tat de choses et depuis une dizaine d'ann6es des am6liorations sont apport6es k la situation des enseignants, des chercheurs et des techniciens; mais cet effort se r6v~le encore bien insuffisant par rapport au retard enregistr6 durant des d6cades. Le cri d'alarme lanc6 par P. Jaccard doit ~tre entendu: l'auteur s'exprime avec beaucoup de mod6ration et une objectivit6 v r a i m e n t scientifique. I l a b o r d e c e s probl~mes ell produisant une documentation consid6rable, qu'il analyse avec une finesse exceptionnelle. C'est pourquoi, nous ne saurions trop insister sur la n6cessit6 de sa lecture, par tous ceux qui s'int6ressent A l'avenir de l'6ducation et ~ son insertion dans les structures sociales de l'avenir. ALEXANDRE VEXLIARD, Paris-Ankara

LATIN AMERICAN EDUCATION RESEARCH: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF 269 U.S.A. DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS, compiled and annotated by FRANKLIN PARKER, University of Texas. This publication is available free on request from The Director, Institute of Latin American Studies, B.E.O. Building, Room 725, University of Texas, AUSTIN, Texas, 78712 (U.S.A.)