Early Childhood Educ J (2014) 42:271–278 DOI 10.1007/s10643-013-0600-y
Bullying Among Young Children: Strategies for Prevention Emily Levine • Melissa Tamburrino
Published online: 21 August 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Bullying is an increasing problem within childcare facilities, preschool programs, and public schools. As a result, many districts are instituting antibullying intervention programs. This article defines bullying and explains the direct and indirect forms it can take. First, it examines research on bullying during the beginning years of school. Next, it explains how relational aggression occurs and the importance of positive peer support systems within their schools. The article concludes by examining the effects of consistent anti-bullying initiatives (e.g. conflict resolution strategies, daily checkins, journals, and peacemaking activities) that address bullying behaviors among young children. Through consistent and clear interventions, students can build positive peer relationships that promote a safe and healthy school climate and culture. Keywords Bullying Conflict resolution Relational aggression Intervention Peer support
E. Levine (&) Gateway School District, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Monroeville, PA, USA e-mail:
[email protected] E. Levine 4625 Fifth Ave. Apt 210, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA M. Tamburrino Penn Hills School District, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, PA, USA M. Tamburrino 80 Hemlock Street, Homer City, PA 15748, USA
School bullying has always been an issue, and now more than ever it is important to address bullying from a young age. Bullying has become a growing international concern due to the highly publicized incidents of school violence. Researchers, educators, psychologists, program developers, and other professionals who work with children are emphasizing the importance of initiating preventative efforts earlier, during the preschool/primary years. Recognizing that bullying can begin from a young age is important because initial instances of aggression and bullying behavior often forecast significant future problems as aggression can be stable across childhood and adolescents (Olweus 1979; Olweus and Limber 2007). According to Olweus and Limber (2007), in order for a behavior to be considered bullying it must be repetitive, intended to cause harm, provide unwanted negative actions, and show an imbalance of power or strength between the bully and the victim. While some may argue that bullying is a right of passage and it is an inevitable part of childhood, preschool children displaying repeated aggression towards specific peers may be said to be displaying bullying behaviors relative to their age and developmental levels (McEvoy et al. 2003). Children who engage in bullying from a young age may be involved in what is known as precursory bullying. Precursory bullying has implications for future bullying, and is understood as ultimately destructive and damaging (Smith 2004; Anthony and Lindert 2010; Coloroso 2004; Bullying Statistics 2009). Thus, in order to prevent bullying behaviors from persisting and escalating, early childhood educators need to be better informed about the ways in which bullying manifests itself in young children. The Australian Government is committed to helping children get off to the best start possible, and is developing a National Agenda for Early Childhood to support this goal (Rigby and Johnson 2005). Data from a Dutch study
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suggested that children with persistent and difficult behavior problems during the preschool years, show negative long-term effects in the areas of social skills and peer interactions (Edmond et al. 2007). These behaviors can be reduced by incorporating early intervention programs that include positive peer relations and social skills (Edmond et al. 2007). This article discusses how to identify bullying, explains its various forms, and describes scenarios of bullying situations that occur in early childhood settings. This is followed by an explanation of why bullying is a problem among the young. Next, relational aggression will be analyzed and an explanation of how forming peer groups helps to reduce bullying will be included. To conclude this article, a discussion of the interventions used to minimize school-wide bullying will be provided.
The Origins of Bullying in Early Childhood Across various early childhood settings and cultural contexts, bullying incidents take place on a daily basis, and affect all children, whether they are the victim, bully, or bystander. Bullies generally plan or start the bullying (Olweus and Limber 2007). Victims are the ones who are bullied (Olweus and Limber 2007). Bystanders are considered witnesses, and they can actively resist, stand up to the bully, or speak out against the bullying (Olweus and Limber 2007). The American Association of School Psychologists reported that more than 160,000 students are absent from school daily due to the fear of being bullied (Liepe-Levinson and Levinson 2005). Bullying can occur within a variety of places such as school, workplace, family events, sports, and within the community (Dracic 2009). It mainly occurs in places without school staff observing or hearing about it; one common place is the playground (Rigby and Johnson 2005). Bullying consists of many types of actions such as physical, verbal, relational, cyber, and sexual (Jacobsen and Bauman 2007; Olweus and Limber 2007). Physical bullying is direct and consists of the victim receiving bodily harm from hitting, kicking, punching, pushing, and spitting, which are intended to cause harm and can be repetitive in nature (Green 2007; Schoen and Schoen 2010; Olweus and Limber 2007). Gillies-Rezo and Bosacki (2003) suggested in their research that females reported more bullying occurring at school and males reported more bullying at home. The kindergarten students reported more instances of physical bullying occurring than any other form (Gillies-Rezo and Bosacki 2003). Parents and teachers need to be aware of bullying within the classroom and follow district
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procedures on how to address physical bullying. Parents and teachers can also visit websites, which offer practical suggestions and resources to adults as well as children impacted by bullying. A detailed description of the websites can be found in ‘‘Appendix 1’’. In most situations, bullying can be divided into two categories: physical aggression and relational aggression. Cyber bullying, verbal bullying, and sexual bullying fall into the relational aggression category. Both forms of aggression, physical and relational, can occur in the preschool setting. Physical aggression includes biting, hitting, pushing, and kicking. Studies show that the number one reason for aggressive outbursts among young children is possession disputes–arguments over play materials (Allison et al. 2011). Relational aggression takes place when indirect actions such as exclusion, control of peer relationships, or a detachment of friendships occur (Olweus and Limber 2007; Wolke et al. 2009). Figure 1 summarizes the main differences between physical aggression and relational aggression.
Identifying Factors of Bullying When direct actions such as name calling, teasing, threatening, humiliating, and scorning occur it is considered verbal bullying (Jacobsen and Bauman 2007; Schoen and Schoen 2010). Perren and Alsaker (2006) suggested that bullies in kindergarten were more physically and verbally aggressive when bullying their victims. The bullies targeted victims with no friends or children who had left a peer group. Verbal bullying usually occurs when teachers or adults are not present, so students should report instances of verbal bullying to adult authority before the situation escalates. Relational bullying is more common among girls (Green 2007; Olweus and Limber 2007; Shore 2009). It takes place when indirect actions such as exclusion, control of peer relationships or a detachment of friendships occur (Olweus and Limber 2007; Wolke et al. 2009). It is more common among girls because they are more verbal, whereas boys are more aggressive (Olweus and Limber 2007; Anthony and Lindert 2010). Adults need to be aware that bullying can occur at school, and students need to be able to trust in an adult for help.
Educating Young Children about Ways to Address Bullying Educating young children about bullying can be planned under four approaches: knowledge, attitudes, skills and behaviors. Educators can develop knowledge and
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Fig. 1 Physical aggression versus relational aggression
understanding in young children by discussing what is meant by the term bullying and the different forms that it can take, what harm bullying can do, why bullying behavior is unacceptable, and what can be done about it (Rigby 2003, p. 9). Attitudes and values can be developed by teaching young students to feel empathetic toward children who are bullied by others, teaching feelings of abhorrence at the idea of people bullying others, allowing students to feel shame if they are instrumental in bullying others, developing feelings of empathy toward others (especially those who have been victimized) gaining a sense of responsibility for helping those who are unfairly treated, and accepting those who are different from themselves (Rigby 2003, p. 9). Skills that should be enhanced and taught by educators should include the capacity to protect children from those who bully, the capacity to control negative emotions such as anger, the ability to challenge bullying behaviors used against others, and conflict resolution skills that can be employed to help children resolve differences peaceably (Rigby 2003, p. 9). Educators should encourage behaviors that refrain from bullying others, behaviors that help resolve disputes that could lead to bullying, behaviors that restrain or discourage those who would bully others, and provide help, acceptance and support for children who have been bullied (Rigby 2003, p. 9). Educators can tie children’s books into their discussions by reviewing the character’s actions in various situations. Refer to the ‘‘Appendix 1’’ for a sampling of children’s books that can be utilized. Figure 2 summarizes the four components of addressing bullying issues.
Bullying Prevention in Early Childhood Settings Many reasons exist to describe why bullying takes place. It is interesting to consider these reasons from multiple viewpoints to really gain an understanding of the bullying epidemic. Thornberg (2010) conducted personal interviews with 56 elementary schoolchildren in Sweden. It was identified through the interviews that the typical bullying causes are: ‘‘deviant appearance, deviant behavior, deviant characteristics, and disabilities’’ (Thornberg 2010, p. 315). Deviant appearance referred to wearing odd clothing, or being thinner or fatter than the other children; deviant behavior referred to not demonstrating behaviors like the rest of the peer group; deviant characteristics referred to being weird, or nerdy; and disabilities referred to a handicap (Thornberg 2010). All of these bullying causes can be addressed in the early years during preschool and elementary school. Students need to be taught about tolerance, and what it means to accept others for who they are. Tolerance can be taught to young children through picture books. By providing young children with culturally relevant texts and exposing them to backgrounds that are different from their own, then they will expect individuals to be unique and celebrate those differences. Students will also gain an appreciation of differences from a young age. The Literacy Alliance (2013) suggested engaging preschool and kindergarten students in story time to be curious about their surroundings and embrace the diversity that surrounds them. Some of the books listed in ‘‘Appendix 2’’ address cultural differences; please refer to the list for ideas on how to implement them into your teaching.
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Fig. 2 Educating young children about bullying
While younger children may have a difficult time determining if an incident is bullying, it is never too early to teach youngsters the correct definition of bullying, and how to address the incidents in an appropriate fashion. Teachers can refer back to characters in a variety of children’s literature and discuss their behaviors. Teachers should point out if the behaviors are repetitive, or if they occur only once. Younger children may respond more favorably if teachers address the situations as conflict resolution. If teachers have the ability to spend time addressing conflict and recognizing emotions in others as well as themselves, it may lead to a decrease in bullying incidents for the future.
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Twemlow and Sacco (2008) wrote, ‘‘The key to preventing bullying is to include specific activities and messages as organic parts of the educational process the students are already involved in, appropriate to their developmental needs’’ (p. 43). Finding appropriate interventions for the young students can seem like an overwhelming task for educators, however, in the end, these activities and lessons can provide powerful life-long information for the recipients. Conflict resolution programs can be incorporated into schools and modeled throughout the year so that students can solve problems without using destructive behaviors (Beane 2000). Parents and educators
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should recognize that children can benefit from understanding conflict resolution skills at the time of their first interactions with others (Broadbear and Broadbear 2000). These conflict resolution programs should be shared with all of the children in the classroom. In addition, the teachers should model for the students how to go through each one of the steps that are listed. Conflict resolution can also be discussed while sitting in a circle. A teacher may open the discussion in the circle by stating something like, ‘‘My 3-year old twins fought over the same toy to bring in for show and tell. If you were one of my twins, how would you decide who gets to bring the toy in this week?’’ Adults need to find out the source of conflict and validate the emotions of the children involved in the situation (Palenski 2012). While sitting in a circle, the teacher shows the students a plastic ring, and then models the purpose of the ‘‘plastic ring’’ used for the Conflict Resolution Circle or Peace Circle. This circle should be placed in an area throughout the classroom where students can grab it once a conflict resolution situation occurs. The students can be placed into pairs on the floor or sitting in two chairs facing one another. They hold the ring with both hands. As they are holding the plastic ring, they discuss aloud their issues with one another, as well as possible solutions. Conflict resolution strategies should be taught, prior to using the Peace Circle technique because the students will follow these strategies to resolve their issue. A daily check-in for students could prove to be beneficial for young students. This daily event could be used to start each day, and it gives each child in the classroom an opportunity to share how he or she is feeling at school in addition to sharing the events that are taking place at home. Daily check-ins have been found to increase school/class empathy and attachment (Heydenberk and Heydenberk 2004). Also students automatically show the use of the I-Message concept (Heydenberk and Heydenberk 2007). An I-Message begins with something like this, ‘‘I feel…’’ (Turnuklu et al. 2010). This message usually contains a feeling word and its purpose is to help students become aware of their emotions. Students have the opportunity to become aware of their classmates’ feelings, as well as their lives by having daily check-ins and using I messages in the classroom. One child within the preschool classroom expressed his sadness over his sick dog. When he began his I-message with ‘‘I feel sad because my doggie is sick,’’ the other children were immediately able to console him. The other students shared their own experiences with sick pets, and told the boy that his dog would get better soon. Peace journals can also be used with young children. While some children are not developmentally ready for writing, many children are capable of drawing pictures to represent their feelings. Figure 3 highlights an example of
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a child using a peace journal. In these journals, students have a personal space to write or draw how they are feeling on a particular day or after a dispute has occurred in class. Some students could even have the opportunity to respond to a prompt in their peace journals. These journals could serve as a communication link between the teacher and student, as well as students. Teachers can provide students with opportunities for drawing peaceful behaviors in their journals. One particular student drew a picture of himself with a frown face on one side of the playground and the other children playing together on the opposite side. When the teacher saw the picture and questioned the student, she realized that the child was being excluded. After addressing the issue, the next day, the little boy drew a picture of all of the children playing together on the playground. Individual students or entire classrooms can also create peaceful beings. Peaceful beings are shaped similarly to a gingerbread man, although they don’t all need to be the same shape, and they can be small or life-size. Students can decorate their peaceful being to reflect to reflect their personal interests. The teacher and the students would engage in a conversation. This conversation would model what a peaceful being would say to resolve a conflict. These sayings would then be transferred onto the peaceful
Fig. 3 Peace Journal from a 4-year old who had a great time during recess with her classmates. Below is the same 4-year old when she was bullied by a classmate at recess
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being as a constant reminder of how to address conflict in a peaceful way. The peaceful being can be hung in a central location in the classroom, or sitting in a special conflict resolution corner. The teacher and students should ‘‘consult’’ with the peaceful being when conflicts arise to see the best way is to handle these incidents. It is also suggested that hanging peaceful beings as well as posting feeling words near the Conflict Resolution Circle will help students remember the conflict resolution strategies. In addition, the Peaceful Beings could be used as puppets to roleplay bullying situations. This will help students engage in teamwork, leadership, and speaking and listening skills (The Literacy Alliance 2013). In addition to the above-mentioned strategies, Davis and Nixon (2011) suggested in their research that the most effective strategy used to end or avoid bullying behavior was to ask for help from a friend or an adult. The students surveyed in this study stated that getting suggestions, consolation, and assurance from an adult or friend helped to stop their bullying situations (Davis and Nixon 2011). After an adult is aware of the situation, they can supervise that actions going on at school and periodically check into make sure that the victim is all right (Davis and Nixon 2011). Friends can be there for moral support. They can be an active listener, provide advice, or tell an adult (Davis and Nixon 2011).
Conclusion As an initial step in addressing the bullying problem in school, students need to be aware of the participants in a bullying situation and the different forms of bullying that can occur. Recognizing and intervening in bullying situations when children are young can reduce future bullying behaviors. There are a variety of different interventions used at a young age to prevent bullying. Some of the interventions discussed in the articles were the conflict resolution model, peace circles, daily check-ins, I-Messages, peace journals, and peaceful beings. By modeling conflict resolution strategies and incorporating feeling words into daily instruction, children can learn to show how they feel and discuss ways to positively handle conflicts when they arise. Teachers can monitor the room during free time, but they should let the students handle their own situations by looking at the each other when speaking and verbally stating how they feel (O’Connell 2007). Each of these suggestions can be implemented into preschool and elementary classrooms with ease. Some take more planning than others, but once they are implemented, there are no further preparations. By raising the awareness of bullying and participating in the school wide intervention programs,
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students can begin to mold a safer school climate and culture where all students can learn and grow.
Appendix 1: Website Resources for Anti-bullying Materials Kids Health (2013). Kids talk about bullying. Retrieved from http://kidshealth.org. This website offers parents, children, and teachers a variety of resources to address bullying. Articles as well as videos are available on the website that address various bullying situations. PBS Kids (2005). Bullies: What is bullying?. Retrieved from http://pbskids.org/itsmylife/friends/bullied/index.html. This website defines bullying and offers suggestions on how to handle bullying situations for parents and children. Beat the Bully is an interactive game that students can explore while visiting this website. There are also videos and advice that informs students and parents about bullying situations. Pacer’s Center (2013). Kids against bullying. Retrieved from http://www.pacerkidsagainstbullying.org/#/home. This interactive website allows children to identify bullying in its different forms in addition to identifying the individuals involved in bullying situations. It provides students with a place where they can explore their creative side by giving them an opportunity to share their personal experiences with bullying, or ways that their schools have reduced bullying. There are also interactive bullying games and coloring activities that students can explore while on this website. Take back the playground (2005). Retrieved from http:// www.kzoo.edu/psych/stop_bullying/for_kids/what_is_a_ bully.html. This website promotes social development among children, and informs parents on what to do when their children are involved in bullying situations. It also allows children to respond to questions such as ‘‘what would you do?’’ if you were in the situation. United States Department of Health and Human Services (2013). Retrieved from http://www.stopbullying.gov. This website is sponsored by the United States government and provides a myriad of resources for parents, teachers, and children. There are interactive videos and games that explain in detail what bullying is and its many forms. In addition, there are supports for parents whose children have been bullied. What parents can do to deal with cyberbullying and school bullying at school. Retrieved from http://www. dontlaugh.org/what-parents-can-do-to-deal-with-child-bullying andschool-bullying/.
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This website provides suggestions for parents about how they can help their children overcome bullying situations. It also promotes educating community members about the importance of identifying bullying. This website encourages parents to have their children join martial arts as a means of reducing victimization as well as reforming the behavior of bullies.
Appendix 2: Annotated Bibliography of Children’s Books Beith-Huliska, L. (2002). The recess queen. New York, NY: Scholastic Press. This book shows how one student rules the recess yard, and a new student at school takes her reign away. The new student was unaware that there was a recess queen, but she was able to dethrone her and show her how much fun it is to play together. PACER recommends using the interests of students when addressing bullying. Preschool students enjoy recess and engaging in play with others. When common interests are identified among other children they will recognize the shared interest and be less likely to bully one another. Cook, J. (2009). Bully B.E.A.N.S. Chattanooga, TN: National Center for Youth Issues. Bobbette is a bully at school and the kids at school are afraid of her. One student tells her mother about what is happening in school and she tells her daughter to bring ‘‘magic jellybeans’’ to school. Teachers can use a resolution circle with this book and give the students the opportunity to react and respond to different bullying scenarios. Teachers can also pass out jellybeans to engage in role-playing (Olweus and Limber 2007). Emberley, E. (2007). Bye-bye: Big bad bullybug. Boston, MA: Little Brown Books for Young Readers. This is a perfect fit for students in preschool. The bullybug grows bigger and bigger throughout the story, but in the end, it is the little bug who saves the day. Teachers can use this book for their daily check-in. During the check-in students can inform the teacher of good deeds that they see others doing, especially classmates who stick up for someone else. Galan, A. & Galan, A. (2009). Billy bully a school-yard counting tale. New York, NY: Scholastic Press. This book uses counting to show how Billy Bully looses 9 friends as he bullies them at school. Billy Bully is sad when he no friends to play with so he starts to think about his actions. He realizes that he should treat people nice kindly, so he begins to do nice things for his friends. Olweus and Limber (2007) suggested the usage of roleplaying. Teachers can have their students model different things that they can do to gain and maintain friendships.
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Henkes, K. (1996). Chrysanthemum. New York, NY: Mulberry Books. Chrysanthemum was always told by her parents that her name was beautiful, and Chrysanthemum believed them until she arrived at school. This story is great for all ages because it teaches the importance of being unique, and accepting others. Teachers can assist the children in appreciating the differences that exist among their classmates by assigning buddies for the day. Lovell, P. (2001). Stand Tall, Molly Lou Mellon. New York; NY: Scholastic Press. Molly Lou Mellon has many things about herself that make her unique. She is short and buck toothed, but her grandma always tells her to be proud of herself. She moves to a new school and Ronald Dunkin bullies her every day. Molly doesn’t let his bullying affect how she acts and at the end she writes a letter to her grandma telling her that she was right. Teachers can focus on self-esteem while reading this book. Molly Lou Melon has many characteristics that make her different from her peers. The teacher can ask the students what makes them unique and different from their peers. Teachers can follow-up this discussion by explaining that being unique is something to be celebrated. Moss, P. (2010). One of us. Gardiner, ME: Tilbury House Publishers. Everyone is excited for their first day of school, and eager to make new friends. This book shows readers that it is okay to belong to different groups of friends, and that each group you are a part of, you share something special with. Teachers can identify common interests among the students through games and getting to know you activities. Throughout the year, teachers can utilize these similarities and differences to group the students to complete different activities. Otoshi, K. (2010) One. San Rafael, CA: KO Kids Books. This book uses colors and numbers to illustrate the importance of being the one who takes a stand against bullying. The author creatively tells a story about how the bully grows in size and power, until one takes a stand and extinguishes the power from the bully. Teachers can utilize the peaceful being with this story. Students can identify themselves as the one and show through art what they would like in that role.
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