Contrib Mineral Petrol (2012) 164:17–25 DOI 10.1007/s00410-012-0722-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
Electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks: influence of dehydration Duojun Wang • Yingxing Guo • Yingjie Yu Shun-ichiro Karato
•
Received: 27 October 2011 / Accepted: 25 January 2012 / Published online: 7 February 2012 Ó Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract We investigated the electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks under the conditions of the middle to lower crust. Alternating current measurements were performed in the frequency range of 10–106 Hz in a cubic-anvil high-pressure apparatus at 0.5–1.0 GPa and 373–873 K. The electrical conductivity of these rocks is weakly temperature dependent below *800 K with modest anisotropy and relatively low conductivity (*5 9 10-3 S/m at *750 K with the activation enthalpy of 64–67 kJ/mol). However, the electrical conductivity starts to increase with temperature more rapidly above *800 K (activation enthalpy of 320–380 kJ/mol). The infrared spectroscopy observations indicate that dehydration occurs in this high temperature regime. The observed high activation enthalpy and the reproducibility suggest that the enhanced conductivity is not due to the direct effect caused by the generation of conductive fluids. Dehydration of amphibole is associated with the oxidation of iron (from ferrous to ferric), and we suggest that the increased conductivity associated with dehydration is caused by oxidation. This effect may explain high electrical conductivity observed in some regions of the continental crust.
Communicated by H. Keppler. D. Wang (&) Y. Guo Y. Yu Key Laboratory of Computational Geodynamics, Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China e-mail:
[email protected] S. Karato Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
Keywords Electrical conductivity Amphibole Dehydration High-conductivity layer
Introduction Hydrous minerals carry a large amount of water into Earth’s interior, and therefore, the distribution of hydrous minerals is important in understanding the global water circulation (e.g., Williams and Hemley 2001). The presence of hydrous minerals is often considered to cause high electrical conductivity in Earth’s crust (and the upper mantle). However, this notion has not been confirmed by experiments in detail, and in fact, some recent studies showed that many hydrous minerals do not show particularly high electrical conductivity compared with other coexisting minerals (e.g., Reynard et al. 2011). Karato and Wang (2012) discussed that this is likely due to the low mobility of protons in hydrous minerals where protons are strongly bonded to oxygen. However, when hydrous minerals are exposed to high temperatures then dehydration reaction will occur that may influence the electrical properties of these minerals or mineral assemblies. Dehydration reactions are expected to occur in a variety of geological processes including subduction. Despite its potential importance, the influence of dehydration reactions on electrical conductivity of hydrous minerals remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the influence of dehydration reaction on the electrical properties of amphibole-bearing rocks. Amphibole is thought to be one of the most important hydrous minerals in the continental middle crust and in subduction zone. In the previous studies, many scientists investigated the distribution of amphibolites rocks in the crust. For instance, Christensen and Mooney (1995) developed a model of crustal petrology by comparing the
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structure of the continental crust based on the results of seismic refraction profiles with high-pressure laboratory measurements of seismic velocity for common crustal rocks. In their model, amphibolite is abundant in the depth interval 15–30 km, where its content is as high as 35–40%. If this is true, the amphibole should be a dominant mineral in the middle continental crust. Vanyan and Gliko (1999) suggested that the high-conductivity layer in the Kirgyz Tien Shan range may be attributed to the dehydration of amphibole-bearing rocks at the depths of 20–40 km in the temperature range 923–973 K. A similar suggestion was made by Glover and Vine (1995). In all these previous studies, it was assumed that dehydration influences conductivity through the production of aqueous fluids. The influence of dehydration of hydrous minerals such as amphibole (or amphibolite) on electrical conductivity was never studied in detail. Most available published data on the electrical conductivity of amphibole were measured at atmospheric pressure (Littler and Williams 1965; Tolland 1973; Schmidbauer et al. 1996, 2000). For instance, Schmidbauer et al. (1996) determined the anisotropy in conductivity at temperatures of 303–1,073 K: conductivity is higher by a factor of 5–6 along the [001] direction than that normal to [001]. Schmidbauer et al. (2000) found that the electrical conductivity of amphiboles increases with iron content. However, the electrical conductivity of amphibole at high pressure has not been measured. The purpose of this study is to measure the electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks under the conditions found in the crust including the conditions where dehydration reaction will occur. In this study, by using the impedance spectroscopy method, we measured the electrical conductivity of amphibolite at 0.5 GPa and the plagioclase amphibolite at 1.0 GPa, along directions parallel and perpendicular to the lineation within the sample. Using these results, we will discuss the possible causes for the high electrical conductivity in the continental crust.
Experimental procedure Sample preparation The starting materials are natural plagioclase hornblendite and hornblendite. The plagioclase hornblendite samples were collected from Lincheng county, Hebei province, which is located in the middle section of the Trans-North China Orogen which underwent high amphibolite facies metamorphism in the Proterozoic. They experienced metamorphic peak P (pressure)–T (temperature) conditions of 1.0–1.25 GPa and 780 K (Xiao et al. 2011). The plagioclase hornblendite has an approximate modal composition of *80% hornblende, *15% feldspar, *3% quartz,
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and *2% minor phases. The plagioclase hornblendite commonly contains hornblende with strong shape-preferred orientation (Fig. 1). The plagioclase hornblendite shows lineation, and specimens were cut along parallel (Fig. 1a) and perpendicular (Fig. 1b) to the lineation. Figure 1c, d shows the back-scattered electron (BSE) images parallel and perpendicular to the lineation after the experiments, respectively. The hornblendite, underwent lowgrade metamorphism, was sampled in MiYun County, Beijing. It has an approximate modal composition of *50% hornblende with grain size of 0.5–3.0 mm, *48% actinolite with a grain size of 0.5–2.0 mm, and *2% minor metal oxides. There is no clear lineation in this rock. The chemical compositions of both the bulk rock and individual minerals are shown in Table 1. The samples were studied by XRD both before and after experiments to identify the mineral phase assemblage. The observation indicated that the phase composition of the rock after the experiments was the same as before. Experimental method All the experiments were carried out in the YJ-3000 cubicanvil high-pressure apparatus at the Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The sample assembly is shown in Fig. 2. The pressure was generated in a pyrophyllite cube pressure medium by six tungsten-carbide square-surface anvils. The cubic pyrophyllite (32 mm 9 32 mm 9 32 mm) used as the pressure medium was sintered at 1,173 K to eliminate the potential effects of its dehydration on the experiment process. The Al2O3 insulating tube was placed at the center of the heater. The furnace was made of three layers of stainless steel foils. The sample temperature was monitored by a NiCr– NiAl thermocouple placed against the sample. The apparatus has been described in detail elsewhere (Xu et al. 1994; Wang et al. 2008, 2010). All complex impedance measurements were performed at 0.5 and 1 GPa, using a Solartron 1260 impedance phase analyzer. A 1-V sinusoidal signal was applied in the frequency range 0.1–106 Hz for the high temperature and pressure experiments. The complex impedance was measured in several heating–cooling cycles. Measurements were taken from 373 to 873 K. The resistance of the sample was determined from the impedance measurement by modeling an equivalent circuit composed of a resistor in parallel with a capacitor.
Results Figure 3a,b shows the typical electrical impedance spectrum acquired for the plagioclase hornblendite
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19 b Fig. 1 The back-scattered electron (BSE) images of plagioclase hornblendite. a Parallel to lineation before experiment; b perpendicular to lineation before experiment; c parallel to lineation after experiment; d perpendicular to lineation after experiment. Abbreviations are Hb hornblende; Pl plagioclase; Qt quartz
perpendicular to the lineation at 1.0 GPa at various temperatures. Two arcs, which imply two charge transport processes (Roberts and Tyburczy 1991), are visible on the complex plane from 512 to 823 K. The first arc shows a nearly complete semicircular pattern and occurs in the frequency range of approximately 100–106 Hz due to grain interior conduction. The second incomplete arc is related to the grain boundary conduction and appears at a medium frequency of approximately 100 Hz. With increasing temperature, the diameter of the impedance arc decreases. This means that the electrical conductivity of plagioclase hornblendite increases with increasing temperature, indicating semiconductor behavior. Figure 4 shows the logarithm of electrical conductivity versus reciprocal temperature for the hornblendite at 0.5 GPa (Fig. 4a) and, for plagioclase hornblendite, perpendicular (Fig. 4b) and parallel (Fig. 4c) to the lineation within the plagioclase hornblendite at 1.0 GPa. Three heating and cooling cycles were performed during all the electrical conductivity measurements. In the first and second cycles, for hornblendite at 0.5 GPa, the sample was heated up to below 750 K and then was cooled to about 420 K. The electrical conductivity shows excellent reproducibility during the heating– cooling cycles. In the third heating cycle, the sample was heated up to 830 K and then was cooled to around 376 K. The electrical conductivity in heating cycle in the temperature range of 420–750 K is consistent with that derived from the first and second cycles. The electrical conductivity slope changes around 760 K. In the third cooling cycle, the electrical conductivity is slightly higher than that derived from the third heating cycle. In the first and second cycle, for plagioclase hornblendite perpendicular to lineation, the sample was heated up to about 800 K and then was cooled to about 450 K. The conductivity values were almost identical except several data points at the lower temperatures. In the third cycle, the sample was heated up to almost 900 K and then was cooled to *420 K. In the third heating cycle, the conductivity values show good repeatability for the temperature range from 420 to 800 K, and the slope change occurs around 840 K. In the third cooling cycle, the electrical conductivity values are half an order of magnitude larger than those in the third heating cycles. For plagioclase hornblendite parallel to the lineation, the electrical conductivity derived from the first heating
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Table 1 Compositions of amphibole-bearing rocks Composition
Plagioclase hornblendite
Wt%
Bulk
Hb
Hornblendite Pl
Bulk
Act
Hb
SiO2
49.23
43.83
55.37
49.28
53.97
43.06
TiO2
0.72
0.64
0.01
0.66
0.05
1.11
Al2O3
16.47
13.93
27.91
7.03
2.93
12.5 0.12
Cr2O3
n.d
0.08
0.00
n.d
0.04
FeO
7.21
14.06
0.06
13.52
9.08
12.86
MnO
0.16
0.22
0.00
0.18
0.19
0.19
MgO CaO
8.44 10.47
11.37 11.45
0.00 10.39
14.47 11.76
17.43 12.44
12.14 11.77
Na2O
2.38
1.44
5.56
0.89
0.41
1.75
K2O
0.33
0.44
0.05
0.41
0.09
0.89
P2O5
0.10
n.d
n.d
0.08
n.d
n.d
LoI
1.28
n.d
n.d
1.76
n.d
n.d
Total
99.85
97.46
99.35
100.04
96.71
96.43
Hornblendite Hb Hornblende; Pl plagioclase; Act actinolite; LoI loss on ignition; n.d not determined
Fig. 2 Sample assembly for electrical conductivity measurements at high pressure. 1 Pyrophyllite (preheated to 1,073 K); 2 electrical wire; 3 furnace; 4 pyrophyllite (baked to 1,273 K); 5 Al2O3 spacer; 6 Al2O3 sleeve; 7 sample; 8 thermocouple; 9 electrode
cycle is slightly higher than the value derived from other cycles in the temperature range of 530–680 K. The electrical conductivity showed good repeatability in other cycles, except the third cooling cycle in the temperature range from 390 to 770 K. The slope change occurred around 800 K. In the third cycle, the electrical conductivity is slightly higher than that of heating cycle.
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Figure 5 shows a comparison of electrical conductivity of three rocks. The hornblendite shows the highest conductivity values. For plagioclase hornblendite, the conductivity parallel to lineation is half an order of magnitude larger than that perpendicular to lineation in the third heating cycle; in the third cooling cycle, there is only a minor difference.
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a
a
b
b
Fig. 3 Complex impedance arcs at different temperatures at 1.0 GPa. These symbols represent impedance arcs at different temperatures at 1.0 GPa. The frequency of each data point increases from right to left along each trajectory
c
The activation enthalpies were calculated by fitting the electrical conductivities in the lower and higher temperatures range separately, according to the following equation: r ¼ A expðDH =RT Þ
ð1Þ
where A is the pre-exponential factor, and DH* is the activation enthalpy. Table 2 lists these parameters. Figure 6 shows the non-polarized IR spectrum for amphibole before and after the experiments. The absorption bands due to fundamental OH- bands occur in the 3,750–3,600 cm-1 range. The bands of the OH--stretching vibration are split into at least four sharp peaks. The amplitude of these peaks was reduced after the high-temperate experiments, showing that dehydration occurred during these measurements.
Fig. 4 Logarithm of electrical conductivity as a function of reciprocal temperature for hornblendite at 0.5 GP (a), and for plagioclase hornblendite parallel (b) and perpendicular (c) to lineation in the three heating and cooling cycles
Discussion In Fig. 5, we compare the electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks before and after dehydration. It
can be seen that a reduction in water content resulted in a modest increase in electrical conductivity. However, the activation enthalpy after dehydration is close to that of
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confirm that dehydration took place. In the amphibole structure, the OH- groups are bound to three cations at two M1 sites and one M3 site. The dehydration involves the dissociation of OH- into hydrogen and oxygen associated with the oxidation of iron (from ferrous to ferric) (Schmidbauer et al. 2000; Popp et al. 2006): Fe2þ þ ðOHÞ ! Fe3þ þ O2 þ 1=2H2
Fig. 5 A comparison of electrical conductivities of amphibole. The short dashed lines show the electrical conductivity of amphibole with various Fe content by Schmidbauer et al. (2000). Empty squares represent the electrical conductivity of hornblendite at 0.5 GPa. Starts and empty circles represent the electrical conductivity of plagioclase hornblendite parallel and perpendicular to lineation at 1.0 GPa, respectively Table 2 Results for activation enthalpies, DH*, and pre-exponential, A, for amphibole-bearing rocks Samples
T (K)
log10 A (S/m)
DH* (kJ/mol)
PH\
443–824
1.18 ± 0.07
66 ± 1
PH\
840–900
17.99 ± 0.65
333 ± 15
PH//
395–771
1.49 ± 0.07
64 ± 1
PH//
797–857
18.43 ± 2.23
319 ± 35
HA
420–736
2.03 ± 0.09
67 ± 2
HA
760–824
23.88 ± 2.41
378 ± 36
PH plagioclase hornblendite, HA hornblendite, \ and // parallel and perpendicular to lineation
before dehydration, which suggests that the mechanism of electrical conductivity did not change after dehydration. A possible explanation for the modest increase in electrical conductivity after dehydration is a change in the concentration of ferric ion. Figure 5 also shows previous results for single crystal amphibole along [001] with various iron contents. All of the conductivity values before dehydration fall within the variation interval, which was measured by Schmidbauer et al. (2000) for two amphiboles with high (FeO = 25.44 wt%) and low iron content (FeO = 8.56 wt%) in the temperature range of 323–773 K. Also, the previous electrical conductivity for an amphibole with medium Fe content is similar to the electrical conductivity of the hornblendite. Previous studies showed that the temperature of dehydration was between approximately 573 and 1,073 K, depending on the fraction of Mg or Fe at the M1 and M3 sites (Schmidbauer et al. 2000). The FTIR observations
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ð2Þ
Note that by dehydration, hydrogen is formed not water. Before dehydration, the electrical conductivity of plagioclase hornblendite shows modest anisotropy. The conductivity in the direction parallel to lineation is half an order of magnitude larger than that perpendicular to lineation (Fig. 5). These differences may arise from electrical-conduction networks. The electrical conductivity of plagioclase hornblendite can be represented as the sum of the conductivity contributions of each constituent mineral. Conduction networks depend on the textural distribution of minerals, and variations in the conduction network may affect the results of electrical conductivity measurements of rock samples. In the direction parallel to lineation, amphibole grains are connected to each other along the lineation, which causes easy charge transport. In contrast, in the direction perpendicular to the lineation, feldspar is an insulator and the amphibole does not form an interconnected network. The hornblendite exhibited conductivities half an order of magnitude greater than the plagioclase hornblendite parallel to the lineation. The activation enthalpy of 67 kJ/mol for hornblendite is close to the values (66 and 62 kJ/mol) for the plagioclase hornblendite, suggesting that the dominant conduction mechanism is similar. Tolland (1973) measured electrical conductivity of Mg-rich amphibole, obtained the activation enthalpies H* = 52 kJ/mol along [001] and 55 kJ/mol along [010], and proposed that electron transfer between Fe2? and Fe3? is responsible for electrical conductivity. Schmidbauer et al. (2000) reported the electrical conductivity of Fe-bearing calcic amphiboles with different Fe concentrations (shown in Fig. 5), and suggested that charge transport mechanisms are also due to electron hopping between Fe2? and Fe3?. This means that the conduction mechanism of the Fe–Mg amphiboles is most likely electron hopping between Fe2? and Fe3?, not proton conduction. The origin of high activation enthalpies (320–380 kJ/ mol) at high temperature is not clear. The activation energies for the diffusion of most of cations in silicates are on the order of 200–300 kJ/mol (e.g., Brady 1995). However, it is possible that the observed high activation energy may somehow be related to the dehydration reaction. As discussed before, the dehydration reaction of amphibole is associated with the oxidation–reduction reaction (see Eq. 2).
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a
23 b Fig. 6 FTIR spectra for hornblende before and after experiments. The solid line is the FTIR spectra before experiments. The dotted line is the FTIR spectra after experiments. Upper and lower lines show the maximum and minimum water contents of the grains. a Hornblende; b Actinolite; c Hornblende parallel to lineation; d Hornblende perpendicular to lineation
Geophysical implications
b
c
Electrical conductivity-depth profiles have been derived by inversion of magneto-telluric (MT) and geomagnetic depth sounding (GDS) data for many regions (Kurtz and Garland 1976; Hutton et al. 1980, 1981; Jones1982). Electrical conductivity, however, is known to be very heterogeneous, especially at crustal and upper mantle depths. Conductivitydepth profiles in the continental crust often show highconductivity layers or regions of relatively high conductivity at intermediate depths. Figure 7 shows the conductivity versus temperature relationships for various minerals including nominally anhydrous minerals (from (Yang et al. 2011)) and amphibole-bearing rocks (from the present work). The high conductivity (*10-2–10-1 S/m) observed in some regions (e.g., (Chen et al. 1996)) is difficult to explain by nominally anhydrous minerals even with a modest amount of hydrogen. In contrast, if there is a substantial amount of amphibole then high conductivity can be explained by
d
Fig. 7 A Comparison of laboratory-based conductivity depth with geophysically inferred electrical conductivity for the crust. Hatched region corresponds to the electrical conductivity derived from geophysical observations. The dotted-lines and dashed lines represent the electrical conductivity of the mixture of pyroxene (20%) and plagioclase (80%) in hydrous and dry conditions, respectively (HS? and HS- are Hashin–Shtrikman upper and lower bound, respectively), which were proposed by Yang et al. (2011). Solid lines show electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks derived from this study
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reasonable geothermal models (*1,000 K at *30–50 km depth). To interpret the high electrical conductivity, the presence of conductive fluids is often considered in previous studies (e.g., Vanyan and Gliko 1999). Dehydration is one mechanism of producing such fluids. However, our present study provides an alternative model. Our experimental observations suggest that the direct effect of conductive fluid is not strong for several reasons. First, the chemical reaction described by Eq. (2) does not involve water. Rather than water, hydrogen is formed by dehydration. Also, if conductive fluids were responsible for the high conductivity, then the activation enthalpy should be lower than observed. Furthermore, if fluids were produced by dehydration and influenced the conductivity, we would expect that the high conductivity is not reproducible (because it is hard to keep fluids in the sample assemblage). Rather, our experimental observations suggest that the conductivity is enhanced upon dehydration presumably because of the oxidation of iron. In fact, in order for a fluid phase to enhance the conductivity, the fluid phase needs to be connected, but if a fluid phase is connected, it may easily escape upon compaction (e.g., Shankland et al. 1981; Ribe 1985).
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conductivity in this regime is caused by a dehydration reaction that changes the oxidation state of iron. High conductivity in the continental crust may be attributed to the presence of amphibolite under moderately high temperature ([900 K). However, when temperature exceeds *1,100 K (e.g., Miyashiro 1973), most of amphibole will be dehydrated (amphibolite to granulite facies transition) and conductivity may be reduced. High-conductivity layers may correspond to the high temperature region within the amphibolite facies (i.e., T = 800–1,000 K, P = 0.2–1 GPa, Miyashiro 1973). Acknowledgments The authors thank Chunming Wu for his kindly donating plagioclase hornblendite samples and helpful discussion on geological setting. We also thank Heping Li, Lidong Dai, Yi Yang, Zaiyang Liu, and Zhengting Jiang for their technical assistances, and Hans Keppler, Fabrice Gaillard, and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable suggestions. In particular, a careful review and constructive criticisms by Fabrice Gaillard contributed to modify the emphasis of this paper. This work is partially supported by the Basic Scientific Research Fund of the State Level Institutes for Commonweal in Institute of Geology, CEA (IGCEA-1005), the Important Field Knowledge Innovation Program (KZCX2-YW-QN608), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40774036) and NSF of USA (EAR-0911465).
References Concluding remarks The electrical conductivity of amphibole-bearing rocks was measured through a number of temperature cycles including the temperature region where dehydration reactions occur. When the peak temperature was higher than *800 K, a large fraction of hydrogen was removed from the sample, but the overall conductivity increased only slightly. Therefore, we conclude that most of the hydrogen in amphibole does not contribute to electrical conductivity, which is likely due to the strong bonding between hydrogen and oxygen. The electrical conductivity in amphibole-bearing rocks shows two distinct mechanisms. In the low-temperature regime (T \ 800 K), conductivity is characterized by a small activation enthalpy (*67 kJ/mol) similar to other hydrous minerals (e.g., Reynard et al. 2011). However, above *800 K, the electrical conductivity increases strongly with temperature (with an apparent activation enthalpy of 320–380 kJ/mol). This leads to high electrical conductivity providing an explanation of geophysically observed high conductivity (10-2–10-1 S/m) in some areas of the continental crust. Based on the experimental observations of (i) a high activation enthalpy, (ii) reproducibility of high conductivity during various temperatures cycling, and (iii) the reduction in hydrogen content after high-temperature treatment, we suggest that the high
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