Asian J Bus Ethics DOI 10.1007/s13520-013-0029-9

Ethics and morality beyond normative theories Jayanthi Venkatadurai & Umesh Dhyani & Mohit Sharma

Received: 3 May 2013 / Accepted: 27 July 2013 # Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract What is ethics in the contemporary world? What is the need of defining ethics and, secondly, defining it in contemporary context? The meaning of ethics is so ambiguous to nonphilosophical academicians, corporate world, and others who look to the meaning in the branch of Philosophy called Ethics. At the end of endless debates, if the purpose of getting a definition is done, it is clarity in thinking in defining ethics which would happen. This may lead to clarity in the study of ethics. And why should one study ethics at all? Ethics is interwoven at various levels in our life. The same individual is often in an obligation to face ethics at different levels like home, office, society, etc., or different ethical obligations. With a number of normative theories, the individual mind would be indefinite as to which one to follow. Is it just one theory alone which can be resorted to in an ethical dilemma or a combination of them? Are these theories practical also? Or are they just theories per se? To clear this ambiguity and in order to define ethics, the discussion of the meaning of ethics is important. This paper answers the above questions and throws light on the enquiry. This study hence is an exploratory one. Since the word ethics is interwoven with morality, it is worthwhile to define the word moral. Keywords Normative ethics . Ethics . Morality The general meaning of the word “moral” Morals or values are lived by people, heard from ancestors in stories and anecdotes, and passed on to the next generation. This gives moral an amicable definition. Another definition makes it a rudimentary obligation from within and without. “Ethics tend to be codified into a formal system or set of rules which are explicitly adopted by a group of people. Thus you have medical ethics. Ethics are thus internally defined and adopted, whilst morals tend to be externally imposed on other people.” This gives rise to another debate; are ethics only subjective in nature? In J. Venkatadurai (*) : U. Dhyani : M. Sharma BITS, Pilani Rajasthan, Pilani, Rajasthan, India e-mail: [email protected]

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general, moral defines the character of a person, and ethics, the system which he adopts at a given time. It can be social ethics, medical ethics, family ethics, etc. Is ethics a collective noun? According to Grayling, the word moral is more related to the experiences and considerations relating to the experiences. The subject is called, indifferently, ‘moral philosophy’ or ‘ethics,’ but the terms ‘moral’ and ‘ethical’ do have slightly different resonances. ‘Ethical’ (derived from a Greek word for personal character) carries a broader conception including a concern with the value of different kinds of life and activity; ‘moral’ tends to narrow its interest to rules and obligations, and to the experiences and considerations most closely related to those (Grayling 1996, p. 546) Covey says that “Ethos basically means your ethical nature, your personal credibility, the amount of trust or confidence others have in your integrity and understanding the logos, meaning the logic and pathos, meaning the emotions is also mandatory” (Covey 2004, p. 129). Shashi Motilal takes the Kantian view and advances in the study of Morality. “The criterion of morality, whatever that might be (I have taken the principle of universalizability) would demand rationality and autonomy would imply compliance with the values of justice, equality and impartiality and shared responsibility” (Motilal 2011, p. 104). Shashi Motilal also describes contingent morality and absolute morality in his paper.

Philosophical view The word ethics can be defined in descriptive and normative dimensions according to Boatright. He says that “Ethics as a philosophical endeavor is the study of morality. Such a study is either descriptive or normative.” (Boatright and Prasan Patra 2011, p. 38) So far, what has been seen above are somewhat descriptive. In normative theories of ethics, we find clearly the deontological, teleological, and virtue theories. According to the deontological theory of Kant, the term Moral Law implies that moral duty is an obligation binding of all moral agents without exception. Kant adds that one is accountable for things within his or her control. Secondly, the intention behind an action is what one can have control over. Thirdly, our will is the basis of the evaluation of our moral action. The deontological theories are refuted on the basis that the individual who is the beneficiary of a kind deed is overlooked. In utilitarian theory, what is ethical is that which provides maximum happiness to a maximum number. Here, the standard of measurement of happiness makes it a vague concept. The Nicomachean ethics of Aristotle describes Virtue as a total justice. The nobility of character is what is meant by being ethical. Everybody has pain in life, but that doesn't turn the person into an adversary of the essential goodness in a person. A person of character can be trained (Rackham 1943). To add to this, the concept of Ethical pluralism throws a light on the new ethical era when the meanings of ethics and morality are derived on the basis of human interaction. Ethics is a matter of personal world view, and morality is a matter of interpersonal fairness. In a competent professional intervention, the right and wrong of the individual are not pointed out. Rather, the moral reflection and argument are relevant, and the individual's right to articulate is respected. When ethical conflicts arise, the rigorous questioning of morality becomes mandatory (Ormerod and Ulrich 2013)

Ethics and morality beyond normative theories

The scope of the word “ethics” To see with a larger vision is to accept all theories as an angle in a vision and not granting them propriety, not to give them all the solidarity. In the pedestal of judging human behavior, one cannot have a narrow vision. Yes, as a practitioner, the individual might vote better for a particular theory or an idea. Can ethics be generalized? is the next question which occurs in the enquiry. Are Kantian theories successful? When ethics is applied in an endeavor, the field of application brings about its own periphery. Hence, the new area of applied ethics, like business ethics, medical ethics, and bioethics, crops up. For each and every man, the mind is trained to think in a particular fashion from childhood. The way one thinks is not same as the other. For example, a mother may train a child to be competitive in studies. Then, when the child says no, I did not write in class because X wanted my notebook for his/her use, the child's answer may not satisfy the mother to help the child adopt the principle of sharing. Another example is the case of a businessman helping a friend and incurring loss, which may not be permissible to his kith and kin. When a child shares food, having others' toys just in play is less harmful as it does nothing to harm the growth of the child. Similarly, the ethical application depends on the circumstances and situations in life. The practice of ethics is not on par with the theories. That itself is an interesting topic of enquiry. “Aristotle insists upon the priority of exercising the virtues, of habitually acting in ways that fulfill the highest human potentialities. People are thus called to display courage, self-restraint, generosity, magnificence, magnanimity, sociability, justice, prudence, and wisdom in their business activities. Each of these virtues is to be practiced not for the sake of ensuring financial success—nay, financial success is properly defined by what is necessary to support a virtuous life the latter cannot be fully involved with the development of personal policy or codes and ethics is a branch of Philosophy which talks about the judgement of right and wrong in an action.”(Bragues 2006, p. 342). There is no exclusive definition to ethics which is applicable. Otherwise, to talk of Ethics as a branch of Philosophy is meaningless. “Moral goodness is formed mainly by training in habit.” Every word of Ayn Rand in Romantic manifesto is like a Bible. What is needed, she says, is an explicit Philosophy. (122). According to Ayn Rand, the do's and don'ts a child hears may not lead to a moral upbringing as romantic literature would. First, the sense of life brings meaning to morality. “Morality is thus an abstract, conceptual code of values and principles.” (Rand 1975, p. 110). And secondly, for Ayn Rand, the need for sustenance in life and the need for ethics arise. On the other hand, for Hospers, “morality is the instruction manual in regard to proper care and use that did not come with man and It is the science of human self perfection.” (Hospers 1956) Then what are the elements or determinants of ethics? Though not general, universalization is not made, but with respect to Business ethics, Hume's ethics is said to have evolved with certain determinants as below. Thus, proceeds Kline, The task of a Humean business ethics is to identify those elements beyond selfinterest that determine our ethical obligations. Hume identifies at least six: The utility of justice, conditional motives, the usual force of the passions, intelligibility, moral approbation, and language. While each of these relies on the

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actions of individuals, none of them are invalidated by the incentives and actions of the individual defector. (Kline 2012).

Modern view of ethics In the modern view, the relevance of morality and its application in today's world are covered in this paper. “In this theoretical framework, morality is the complex of norms, behavioral models, virtues, and values which characterize society. Values diffuse globally, but one cannot presume their homogeneity. Indeed, world culture encompasses a wide range of values considered significant by different groups, from values such as environmental protection, peace, or justice, to patriotism, or even nationalism” (Besio and Pronzini 2013). Is ethics applicable in day to day problems or is it an imaginary construct? One cannot intuitively solve the moral dilemmas all the time. He further explains what particularism is, where there are no true moral principles. Tännsjö says, “According to intuitionism, of the variety famously defended by W.D. Ross, there exist self evident moral principles, but these are merely of a prima facie nature. They are not deterministic in nature” (Tännsjö 2011). Love for a loved man is harmful if it is destined to destroy him. Moderation for that matter is talked about by Aristotle in Nicomachean ethics. So, on the ground on which the Kantian theory is refuted, “Here reason for action does not accommodate love, affection, friendship, which are genuine motives of action” (Sachdev 1997) can be argued for that owing to the moderate manner of indulgence that is required, and the feelings are endured at individual level as an expression of nobility in character. Himadri Burman mentions how the skill not backed by ethics is dangerous, and weak skill and weak ethics are useless. Weak skill and strong values are tolerable. The best of skill and values is the most desirable (Burman 2009).

Conclusion In this paper, the definitions of morality and ethics were discussed. Though the meanings of these two terms are used synonymously, ethics overtakes its importance owing to its relevance in the modern world. As Ayn Rand does, the word gathers a philosophical footing when used as a sense of life. The code is not preferred by an individual other than being legal. But, as a principle, it is easy to live them, the ethics for a cause and a purpose. Again while judging the parameters are missing for a qualitative analysis. Hence, a system of application would require something, a theory which is more accommodative and tolerant. Whether virtue, utilitarian, deontological, or justice theory, all would otherwise lead to mere ambiguity. In the connotation of meaning of ethics, we find that ethics is more of a selfaccepted and formulated norm for behavior by a group of people for a common endeavor. Hence, it does not limit itself to the normative theories. It has a dynamic core in nature. How the human mind approaches the different phases of a Dilemma is unique, and circumstantial evidences may overlap the theories or may extend beyond a simple reason. The term moral is larger in its perspective for it could be a lesson

Ethics and morality beyond normative theories

especially from an experience. It is generalized. But, ethics as a discipline has larger connotation than morality; it would denote study on ethics of various groups of people. A principled life with ever-open flexibility to modern changes is called ethics at the individual level in the modern day. It requires a lot of power at individual discretion.

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