Cogn Ther Res (2009) 33:585–596 DOI 10.1007/s10608-008-9223-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Adaptive/Maladaptive Styles of Humor David J. A. Dozois Æ Rod A. Martin Æ Peter J. Bieling

Published online: 2 December 2008 Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract Early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) are thought to act as templates for information processing which influence individuals’ emotional reactions to life situations and their styles of interpersonal relating. The association between EMSs and psychopathology is also believed to be mediated by the use of maladaptive compensatory coping and deficits in adaptive coping (e.g., avoidance, surrender). As styles of coping, humor may be such a mediator. This study examined correlations between domains of the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short form and subscales of the Humor Styles Questionnaire. A number of EMS domains were associated with reduced use of adaptive affiliative and self-enhancing humor styles and increased use of maladaptive self-defeating humor. In addition, the maladaptive aggressive style of humor was associated with the EMS involving insufficient self-control. The relationship between most EMS

D. J. A. Dozois
R. A. Martin The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada P. J. Bieling St. Joseph’s Healthcare Hamilton and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada D. J. A. Dozois (&) Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Westminster Hall, 361 Windermere Road, Rm. 313, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7 e-mail: [email protected]

domains and depressed mood was mediated by both self-enhancing and self-defeating humor styles. Keywords Schemas
Humor
Early maladaptive schemas
Depression
Dysphoria

According to Beck’s (Beck 1967; Beck et al. 1979) cognitive theory of depression, a negative or depressogenic self-schema constitutes a vulnerability factor for depression. Self-schemas are well-organized perceptual sets that form the basis of core beliefs about self and have been conceptualized as ‘‘relatively enduring internal structures of stored generic or prototypical features of stimuli, ideas, or experience that are used to organize new information in a meaningful way thereby determining how phenomena are perceived and conceptualized’’ (Clark et al. 1999, p. 79). Beck argued that the development and structure of a maladaptive self-schema occurs in early childhood but remains dormant until it is activated by negative life circumstances (see Beck et al. 1979). Once activated, schemas are thought to influence information processing in a negative and schema-congruent fashion (Beck et al. 1979; Ingram et al. 1998). There is now substantial support for the idea that maladaptive schemas and core beliefs are contributory causes of unipolar depression (see Dozois and Beck 2008, for review).

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Although Beck’s model contends that early experiences contribute to the development of negative schemas and, in turn, depression, less theoretical emphasis has been allocated to these developmental vicissitudes. The work of Jeffrey Young (Young 1999; Young et al. 2003, 2008) has recently shifted the conceptual focus toward developmental factors involved in cognitive vulnerability to depression and empirical work in this area has increased (e.g., Bruce et al. 2006; Gibb et al. 2006; Lumley and Harkness 2007; Mezulis et al. 2006; Oliver et al. 2007; Whisman and Kwon 1992). Young (Young 1990, 1999; Young et al. 2003) argued that the unique circumstances an individual experiences in childhood contribute to the development of a distinctive set of core beliefs about self and others which he termed early maladaptive schemas (EMS).1 EMSs are believed to develop as a function of thwarted, unmet, or inadequately met needs during early development (see Young et al. 2003) and become self-perpetuating and resistant to change. A number of different EMSs have been identified, which the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) (Young 1990) or its short form (Young and Brown 2003) are designed to assess. An individual who experiences emotional detachment, rejection or abuse, for example, is purported to develop core beliefs in the domain of Disconnection and Rejection (e.g., beliefs of being unwanted, inferior or unlovable). Impaired Autonomy is believed to stem from an early environment that fails to reinforce a child appropriately or that undermines a child’s perceived competence. Beliefs and behaviors subsumed under the domain of Impaired Limits (e.g., entitlement, low frustration tolerance or the refusal to maintain sufficient self-control) are thought to develop in the context of parental over-permissiveness and lack of discipline. Other-directedness (e.g., beliefs pertaining to the excessive need for affection and approval) is believed to derive from families of origin in which children gain acceptance only by suppressing their own needs and pleasing their parents. Finally, 1

Schemas have been defined in a number of ways, but most definitions incorporate the idea that they consist of both structure (i.e., an organizational component) and content (Ingram et al. 1998). As such, our view is that ‘‘early maladaptive schemas’’ (and other accessible beliefs) are really proxies of the self-schema as they do not provide information about the organization of this cognitive content.

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Overvigilance and Inhibition are thought to be cultivated in early environments that are demanding and rigid and where abiding by rules and avoiding mistakes are rewarded to the exclusion of explorative or pleasure-seeking behaviors. A number of studies have recently explored the specific core beliefs outlined in the YSQ. The empirical research generally supports the differentiation among the EMSs (e.g., Glaser et al. 2002; Lee et al. 1999; Schmidt et al. 1995). The EMSs have also been supported in factor analytic studies of the YSQ (Hoffart et al. 2005; Lee et al. 1999; Welburn et al. 2002) although a consistent higher-order factor structure has not emerged (see Oei and Baranoff 2007). Hoffart et al. (2005) recently evaluated the higherorder structure of the 15 EMSs on the short-form of the YSQ using confirmatory factor analysis. In addition to replicating an earlier factor analysis (see Lee et al. 1999), these researchers tested a number of solutions including the five domains purported by Young et al. (2003). Hoffart et al. (2005) found that a four factor model yielded the most parsimonious solution. The schema domains represented in this solution were Disconnection (comprised of Emotional Deprivation, Emotional Inhibition, Mistrust/Abuse, Social Isolation and Defectiveness), Impaired Autonomy (which consisted of EMSs of Subjugation, Dependence, Failure, Vulnerability, Abandonment, Enmeshment and Insufficient Self-control), Impaired Limits (made up of Insufficient Self-control and Entitlement) and Exaggerated Standards (composed of Self-Sacrifice and Unrelenting Standards). According to Young et al. (2003), individuals with EMSs tend to also display maladaptive coping strategies that may perpetuate their schemas. Young et al. (2003) discuss three strategies for coping with the threat of an activated schema. These coping strategies (i.e., overcompensation, avoidance, and surrender) correspond to basic responses to threat (i.e., fight, flight, or freeze, respectively). To our knowledge, no previous research has examined the relationship between compensatory or coping styles and EMS. Humor styles—conceived as the ways people use humor as a method of coping and a form of communication—may mediate the relationship between EMSs and subsequent expressions of psychopathology (e.g., depressive symptomatology). Many authors have noted that humor, because it

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inherently involves incongruity and multiple interpretations, provides a way for individuals to shift perspective on a stressful situation, reappraising it from a new and less threatening point of view, and thereby gaining a sense of mastery (e.g., Dixon 1980; O’Connell 1976). Freud (1928) viewed healthy forms of humor as a mature defense mechanism, a view that has been enunciated more recently by Vaillant (2000). Despite much research, it is unclear whether humor moderates stress (for reviews, see Lefcourt 2001; Martin 2007). More recently, Martin et al. (2003) have argued that relatively weak and inconsistent findings in previous humor research may be due to a failure on the part of researchers to distinguish between potentially beneficial and detrimental styles of humor. Consistent with proposals of several earlier theorists (e.g., Allport 1961; Maslow 1954), they suggested that humor may be used to cope in ways that are maladaptive as well as adaptive. Based on a review of the literature, Martin et al. (2003) identified four such styles of humor, two of which were hypothesized to be beneficial for wellbeing (affiliative and self-enhancing) and two potentially detrimental (self-defeating and aggressive). Affiliative humor is characterized by making spontaneous humorous comments and telling jokes and humorous anecdotes in order to amuse others, facilitate relationships, and minimize interpersonal tension. Self-enhancing humor refers to the use of humor to regulate emotions and cope with stress by maintaining a humorous and cheerful outlook on life. Aggressive humor involves the use of humor for the purpose of demeaning or manipulating others, as in sarcasm, teasing, or ridicule. Finally, self-defeating humor involves excessively self-disparaging humor, attempts to amuse others by doing or saying funny things at one’s own expense as a means of ingratiating oneself or gaining approval, allowing oneself to be the ‘‘butt’’ of others’ humor, and using humor as a way of avoiding dealing constructively with one’s problems.2

2

It is important to note that self-defeating humor is associated with low self-esteem and is conceptually distinct from the concept of ‘‘self-deprecating humor’’, which involves not taking oneself too seriously and being able to make light of one’s faults and mistakes in a self-accepting manner. This is a more healthy form of humor and is a component of affiliative humor.

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Martin et al. (2003) developed the Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) to assess these four uses of humor. A considerable amount of research using this measure has confirmed that the four styles are differentially related to emotional and psychosocial well-being in predicted ways (see Martin 2007, for review). In particular, self-enhancing humor correlates positively with such emotional well-being variables as self-esteem, optimism, positive moods, and cheerfulness, and negatively with depression, anxiety, rumination, perceived stress, and neuroticism. Affiliative humor, while somewhat less strongly related to emotional well-being, is particularly associated with positive relationship variables, including intimacy, relationship satisfaction, social support, interpersonal competence, secure attachment, and extraversion, and negatively related to loneliness and interpersonal anxiety. On the other hand, self-defeating humor is positively correlated with anxiety, depression, psychiatric symptoms, anxious attachment, and neuroticism, and negatively associated with self-esteem and optimism. Finally, aggressive humor, while less strongly associated with emotional well-being, correlates negatively with relationship variables such as relationship satisfaction, interpersonal competence, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and positively with hostility and neuroticism. Overall, then, greater use of self-enhancing humor and lower use of self-defeating humor seem to be important for emotional well-being, whereas greater use of affiliative humor and lower use of aggressive humor are predictive of more satisfactory interpersonal relationships. Individuals with early maladaptive schemas may be less likely to engage in adaptive forms of humor and more likely to use maladaptive types of humor in coping with schema-related stress and interacting with others. For example, individuals with core schemas involving themes of social disconnection (e.g., emotional deprivation, mistrust/abuse, social isolation/alienation) may be less likely to develop the playful, witty, and convivial interpersonal style associated with affiliative humor, and more likely to engage in the cynical, self-disparaging, ingratiating, and avoidant forms of humor associated with the selfdefeating humor style. In turn, these uses of humor may contribute to less satisfying interpersonal relationships and greater dysphoria. Similarly, those with schemas containing themes of impaired autonomy

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(e.g., dependence/incompetence, enmeshment, vulnerability to harm) may be less likely to develop the self-enhancing style of humor which involves the ability to find amusement and laugh at potentially threatening situations and thereby gain perspective and distance oneself from sources of threat. In turn, this reduced tendency to engage in humor as an adaptive coping style may contribute to poorer emotion regulation and greater emotional distress. Additionally, individuals with schemas associated with impaired limits (entitlement, insufficient selfcontrol) may be more likely to engage in aggressive humor styles involving the use of put-downs, sarcasm, teasing, ridicule or disparaging humor, which in turn may contribute to less satisfactory relationships with others. This line of thinking would suggest that aggressive and self-defeating humor styles may be viewed as maladaptive ways of coping with activated schemas, which may serve to perpetuate and maintain the schema-related negative beliefs. Thus, aggressive humor may be used as an overcompensation strategy to enhance oneself at the expense of one’s relationships with others. Similarly, self-defeating humor may been viewed as a coping strategy that is consistent with Young et al.’s (2003) notion of surrender. The purpose of the present study was (1) to determine whether EMSs are associated with particular humor styles, and (2) to determine whether humor styles mediate the relationship between EMSs and dysphoria.3 It was predicted that, in general, higher EMS scores would be associated with lower scores on Affiliative and Self-enhancing humor and higher Self-defeating humor. In addition, EMSs involving Impaired Limits (i.e., Entitlement/Grandiosity and Insufficient Self-Control/Self-Discipline) were expected to correlate positively with Aggressive humor. Finally, it was predicted that the association

3

We are not able to conclude that our findings speak to depression or its vulnerability because we assessed depressive severity in an unselected sample of undergraduate students using the BDI-II. Nonclinical samples may simply capture the experiences associated with general negative affect (e.g., neuroticism, fatigue, dysphoria, transient distress) rather than depression per se. As such, we use the term ‘‘dysphoria’’ or ‘‘self-reported depressive severity’’ to describe this construct (see Kendall et al. 1987; Haaga and Solomon 1993).

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between EMSs and dysphoria would be mediated by Self-enhancing and Self-defeating humor (both of which involve the use of humor in coping, but in adaptive and maladaptive ways, respectively).

Method Participants The sample was comprised of 305 first-year undergraduate students (77% female) recruited from the Psychology Department research participation pool at the University of Western Ontario (UWO). The average age of participants was 18.95 (SD = 3.65). Seventy-percent of the sample identified themselves as Caucasian, 17% Asian, 2% African-Canadian, and 1% of First Nations decent. Eleven percent of the sample listed ‘‘other’’ ethnic backgrounds. The majority of the students (97%) were single, 2% married and 1% divorced or separated. Measures Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (YSQ-SF; Young and Brown 2003). The YSQ-SF is a self-report measure designed to assess 15 different core beliefs and maladaptive schemas (emotional deprivation, abandonment, mistrust/abuse, social alienation, defectiveness, incompetence, dependency, vulnerability to harm, enmeshment, subjugation of needs, self-sacrifice, emotional inhibition, unrelenting standards, entitlement, and insufficient self-control). The scale consists of 75 items each of which is rated from one (completely untrue of me) to six (describes me perfectly). The long form of this measure has received most of the empirical attention and appears to be a valid measure of the verbal products (i.e., an indirect assessment) of core early maladaptive schemas (e.g., Riso et al. 2006). The psychometric properties of the short form of this instrument also appear to be on par with those of the full (205-item) scale, demonstrating similar levels of reliability, validity, and clinical utility (Hoffart et al. 2005; Welburn et al. 2002). The internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of the YSQ-SF in this study was .96. The average internal consistency of the subscales was also excellent (M = .86; SD = .04; range = .78–.93). In order to minimize Type I error in this study, the analyses focused on the four schema domains (Disconnection, Impaired

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Autonomy, Impaired Limits, and Exaggerated Standards) supported in a recent confirmatory factor analysis (see Hoffart et al. 2005). Total scores for each of these domains were computed by summing scores on the particular YSQ subscales loading on the corresponding factor (Disconnection: emotional deprivation, mistrust/ abuse, social isolation, defectiveness/shame, and emotional inhibition; Impaired Autonomy: abandonment, failure, dependence/incompetence, vulnerability, and enmeshment, subjugation; Impaired Limits: entitlement and insufficient self-control; Exaggerated Standards: self-sacrifice and unrelenting standards). All YSQ domains intercorrelated between .25 and .48, except for Disconnection and Impaired Autonomy, which correlated .73. Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ; Martin et al. 2003). The HSQ is a 32-item self-report measure that assesses four different styles of adaptive and maladaptive humor (Affiliative, Self-Enhancing, Aggressive, and Self-Defeating). Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree with each statement on a seven-point (1 = totally disagree; 7 = totally agree) Likert-type scale. Higher scores on this measure indicate that a particular style of humor is more descriptive of the respondent. Previous research has demonstrated good reliability for each of the subscales (Martin et al. 2003). Validity of the measures has been demonstrated by significant correlations between each of the subscales and peer ratings on the corresponding dimensions, as well as theoretically predicted associations with other measures of humor, moods, self-esteem, relationship satisfaction, extraversion, agreeableness, hostility, and other variables (Martin 2007; Martin et al. 2003). The internal consistency (coefficient alpha) for the Affiliative, Self-Enhancing, Aggressive and Self-Defeating subscales in the present sample were .85, .87, .73, and .82, respectively. Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The BDI-II (Beck et al. 1996) is well-established index of the severity of unipolar depressive symptomatology. This 21-item instrument is presented in a multiple-choice format (0–3), with summary scores ranging from 0 to 63. Numerous studies have supported the reliability and validity of the BDI-II in both clinical (Beck et al. 1996) and undergraduate (Dozois et al. 1998) samples (see Dozois and Covin 2004, for review). The internal consistency of the BDI-II in this study was excellent (Cronbach’s alpha = .92).

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Procedure Participants completed these measures in group testing sessions. After providing informed consent, participants were administered the YSQ-SF, the HSQ, and the BDI-II in random order. They also completed other measures which are not the focus of this investigation. Participants received course credit for their involvement in the study.

Statistical Analyses Mediation analyses were conducted to test the hypothesis that humor styles mediate the relationship between the four YSQ domains and dysphoria. The first step in these analyses was to examine simple correlations between the predictor variables (i.e., YSQ domains), mediator variables (HSQ subscales), and criterion variable (BDI-II). As noted by Baron and Kenny (1986), a prerequisite for mediation is that there must be significant correlations between predictor and criterion variables, between predictor and mediator variables, and between mediator and criterion variables. Following these correlational analyses, multiple mediation analyses were conducted separately for each of the four YSQ domains, with a given YSQ domain as the predictor variable and depression scores (BDI-II) as the criterion variable in each analysis. Only those humor styles having significant simple correlations with both the YSQ domain and BDI-II scores were examined as potential mediators in a given analysis. To test for potential mediating effects of several humor styles simultaneously, we used the recently developed bootstrap sampling procedure described by Preacher and Hayes (2008). This procedure allows for the simultaneous examination and statistical testing of the direct effect of the predictor variable on the criterion variable, as well as the indirect (i.e., mediating) effect through the pathway of each of the mediator variables, controlling for all the other mediators in the model. This is conceptually similar to multiple regression, in which the effect of each of several predictors can be tested while controlling for the effects of all the other predictors in a model. This bootstrap procedure uses sampling with replacement to draw a large number of samples

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(1,000 in the present study) from the data set and calculate path coefficients for each sample. Then, using the estimates based on these 1,000 bootstrap samples, the mean direct and indirect effects and their confidence intervals (CIs) are calculated. These CIs are used to determine if each effect is statistically significant. For each effect, the 95% CI is examined and, if this range does not include zero, then this effect is statistically significant at P \ .05. In a similar fashion, CIs can also be set at 99%, resulting in significance levels of P \ .01 if zero does not fall within the calculated CI range. Preacher and Hayes (2008) articulate several advantages of using this bootstrap-driven CI statistical test for direct and indirect effects, compared to product-of-coefficient approaches such as the Sobel test. One important advantage of this approach is that it does not impose the assumption of normally distributed variables. We conducted these analyses with SPSS 15.0 using the macro provided by Preacher and Hayes (2008) for carrying out the bootstrap procedure. In order to compare the results across analyses and variables, all variables used in these analyses were standardized (M = 0, SD = 1.0). Path coefficients can therefore be interpreted in a manner similar to correlation coefficients.

Results For descriptive purposes, the means (SD) for the four Young Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (YSQ-SF) domains, the four scales of the Humor Styles Questionnaire, and the BDI-II scores are presented in Table 1. Pearson correlations between the four

Table 1 Average scores on early maladaptive schema domains, humor styles and dysphoria Variable

Mean (standard deviation)

Disconnection

1.97 (.81)

Impaired autonomy

1.87 (.70)

Impaired limits

2.59 (.84)

Exaggerated standards

3.46 (.88)

Affiliative humor

45.99 (7.27)

Self-enhancing humor

35.91 (9.47)

Aggressive humor

29.22 (7.72)

Self-defeating humor

27.52 (8.84)

Beck depression inventory-II

11.46 (8.88)

Note: Mean scores for the YSQ-SF domains reflect the average across the number of items in each domain

YSQ domains, the four scales of the HSQ, and the BDI-II scores are presented in Table 2. The Disconnection domain of the YSQ-SF was significantly negatively correlated with both Affiliative and SelfEnhancing humor and positively correlated with SelfDefeating humor. A similar pattern of correlations was found with the Impaired Autonomy domain. The Impaired Limits domain was negatively correlated with Self-Enhancing humor and positively correlated with both Aggressive and Self-Defeating humor. Finally, the Exaggerated Standards domain was weakly negatively correlated with Self-Enhancing humor and positively correlated with Self-Defeating humor. All four of the YSQ-SF domains were significantly positively correlated with BDI-II scores, which is not inconsistent with the idea that these early maladaptive schemas may be vulnerability factors for depression (or at least dysphoria as assessed in this

Table 2 Correlations between Young Schema Questionnaire scale domains and scores on Humor Styles and Beck Depression Inventory-II Affiliative -.41

***

Impaired autonomy

-.29

***

Impaired limits

-.09

Disconnection

Exaggerated standards BDI-II

***

Note: N = 305; BDI-II Beck depression inventory-II *

P \ .05,

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***

P \ .001

-.35

***

-.37

***

-.24***

-.01 -.22

Self-enhancing

-.12

*

-.48

***

Aggressive

Self-defeating

BDI-II

.35

***

.61***

.09

.42

***

.66***

.27***

.27***

.39***

.26

***

.23***

.30

***

.09

-.09 .10

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Fig. 1 Mediating effects of Humor Styles Questionnaire scales on relationship between YSQ Disconnection Factor and BDI-II

Affiliative Humor * -.41 *** -.35 *** YSQ Disconnection

SelfEnhancing Humor **

-.15 ** -.36 ***

BDI-II Depression

.51 ***

.35 ***

SelfDefeating Humor (ns)

.10 *

Note. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

study). In addition, congruent with previous research, BDI-II scores were negatively correlated with Affiliative and Self-Enhancing humor, and positively correlated with Self-Defeating humor. Using the procedure described earlier, analyses were then conducted to examine potential mediating effects of the humor styles on the relationships between each of the four YSQ domains and BDI-II scores. In the analysis using the YSQ Disconnection domain as the predictor variable, the HSQ Affiliative, Self-Enhancing, and Self-Defeating humor styles were included as potential mediators, because only these three humor scales were significantly correlated with both Disconnection and BDI-II. The results of this analysis are presented in Fig. 1. Significant mediating effects were found for Affiliative (P \ .05) and Self-Enhancing humor (P \ .01), but the mediating effect for Self-Defeating humor was not significant. Thus, higher scores on Disconnection were associated with lower Affiliative and SelfEnhancing humor, which in turn predicted higher BDI-II scores. In addition to the indirect effects of Disconnection on dysphoria through the two humor styles, a direct effect was also found (c0 = .51, P \ .001), indicating that the humor styles only partially mediate this relationship. To obtain an estimate of the strength of this effect, multiple regression analyses were conducted to compare the variance in BDI-II scores accounted for by Disconnection when entered as the sole predictor, and after first entering Affiliative and Self-Enhancing humor scores. These analyses showed a reduction in R2 from

.37 to .24, indicating that the mediating effect of the two humor measures combined accounts for 13% of the variance in BDI-II scores, or about 35% (i.e., .13/ .37) of the total effect of Disconnection on BDI-II.4 In the mediation analysis for the YSQ Impaired Autonomy domain, Affiliative, Self-Enhancing, and Self-Defeating humor were again examined as potential mediators, based on the pattern of simple correlations found earlier. The results are shown in Fig. 2. In this analysis, a significant mediating effect was found only for Self-Enhancing humor (P \ .01). Higher scores on Impaired Autonomy predicted lower Self-Enhancing humor, which in turn predicted higher BDI-II scores. The direct effect of Impaired Autonomy on dysphoria was also significant (c0 = .54, P \ .001), indicating that Self-Enhancing humor only partially mediates this relationship. Regression analyses were again conducted to estimate the strength of this effect. These results 4

The reported data analyses were conducted on the combined data from males and females. Further analyses were also carried out on the data for females and males separately. The pattern of simple correlations among all the variables was very similar for males and females as for the total sample. The mediation analyses for females revealed a pattern of significant results that were nearly identical to those for the total sample. However, the mediational analyses for males revealed only one significant effect (Self-Enhancing humor mediating the relationship between Disconnection and BDI-II). This was likely due to reduced power resulting from a much smaller sample size for males than for females. However, further research with a larger sample of males is needed to explore the possibility of a different pattern of mediating effects for males.

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Fig. 2 Mediating effects of Humor Styles Questionnaire scales on relationship between YSQ Impaired Autonomy Factor and BDIII

Affiliative Humor (ns) -.29 *** -.37 ***

.42 *** **

-.24 ***

YSQ Impaired Limits

SelfDefeating Humor (ns)

BDI-II Depression

.05

**

SelfEnhancing Humor **

-.41 ***

BDI-II Depression

.23 ***

.28 ***

SelfDefeating Humor **

.21 ***

p < .01; ***p < .001

indicated that the R2 for Impaired Autonomy in predicting BDI-II scores was reduced from .43 to .27 when Self-Enhancing humor was entered first, indicating that the mediating effect of Self-Enhancing humor accounts for about 16% of the variance in BDI-II scores, or about 37% of the total effect of Impaired Autonomy. In the analysis for the Impaired Limits domain, we included Self-Enhancing and Self-Defeating humor as potential mediators, based on the pattern of simple correlations obtained with these scales. The results are presented in Fig. 3. Here, significant mediating effects were found for both Self-Enhancing and Self-Defeating humor (both P’s \ .01). Higher scores on Impaired Limits predicted lower Self-Enhancing humor, which in turn predicted higher dysphoria. On the other hand, higher Impaired Limits scores were associated with higher Self-Defeating humor, which in turn was

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-.31 ***

p < .01; ***p < .001

Fig. 3 Mediating effects of Humor Styles Questionnaire scales on relationship between YSQ Impaired Limits Factor and BDI-II

Note.

-.07

.54 ***

YSQ Impaired Autonomy

Note.

SelfEnhancing Humor **

associated with greater dysphoria. A significant direct effect of Impaired Limits on BDI-II scores was also found (c0 = .23, P \ .001), indicating a partial mediating effect of humor styles. Regression analyses revealed that the R2 for Impaired Limits in predicting BDI-II scores was reduced from .15 to .05 after entering these two humor scales, indicating that the mediating effect of humor accounts for about 10% of the variance in BDI-II scores, or about 66% of the total effect of Impaired Limits. Finally, Fig. 4 shows the results of the analysis for the YSQ Exaggerated Standards domain, in which we again entered Self-Enhancing and Self-Defeating humor as potential mediators. Again, significant mediating effects were found for both Self-Enhancing (P \ .05) and Self-Defeating humor (P \ .01). Higher scores on Exaggerated Standards predicted lower Self-Enhancing humor and higher Self-

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Fig. 4 Mediating effects of Humor Styles Questionnaire scales on relationship between YSQ Exaggerated Standards Factor and BDI-II

-.12 *

YSQ Exaggerated Standards

SelfEnhancing Humor *

-.45 ***

BDI-II Depression

.12 *

.25 ***

SelfDefeating Humor **

.24 ***

Note. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

Defeating humor, which in turn predicted higher BDI-II scores. The direct effect of Exaggerated Standards on dysphoria was also significant (c0 = .12, P \ .05), although somewhat weaker than in the preceding analyses, indicating a partial mediating effect of humor styles. Regression analyses revealed a reduction in R2 from .06 to .01, indicating that the mediating effect of humor accounts for about 5% of the variance in BDI-II scores, or about 83% of the total effect of Exaggerated Standards.

Discussion One objective of this study was to examine the relationships among EMSs, adaptive/maladaptive styles of humor and dysphoria. Another purpose was to evaluate whether humor styles may mediate the relationship between EMSs and dysphoria. Each of the EMS domains was positively and significantly related to self-reported depressive severity. Not surprisingly, the strongest relationships with BDI-II scores were observed for Disconnection and Impaired Autonomy. Disconnection has to do with core beliefs that one’s needs for love, nurturance, empathy, acceptance, and respect from others will not be met. Impaired Autonomy involves beliefs that one lacks the ability to separate and function independently from others. J. Beck (1995) contended that depressogenic core beliefs typically fall into themes of unlovability (‘‘I am unworthy’’; ‘‘I am undesirable’’) or helplessness (e.g., ‘‘I am inadequate’’; ‘‘I am incompetent’’). In addition, these variables correspond to two personality dimensions (sociotropy and autonomy) which are believed to confer vulnerability

to depression when congruent life events occur (Abramson et al. 1997; Clark et al. 1992; Frewen and Dozois 2006; Kwon and Whisman 1998; Neitzel and Harris 1990; Robins and Block 1988). Consistent with previous research (e.g., Chen and Martin 2007; Frewen et al. 2008; Martin et al. 2003), self-reported depressive symptoms were negatively correlated with the use of Self-Enhancing humor and (less strongly) with Affiliative humor, and positively related to Self-Defeating humor. The relationship between dysphoria and Aggressive humor was not statistically significant, a finding that is also congruent with other research (see Martin 2007). The relationship between aggressive humor and emotional well-being has not been established, although this form of humor has only been studied in the context of internalizing pathology. The lack of relationship between an aggressive style of humor and dysphoria is consistent with Beck’s (1967) early formulations of cognitive theory in which he contended that depression is related more to themes of rejection, defeat, deprivation, and sensitivity to failure than a result of anger turned inward. It is possible that a relationship between aggressive humor and externalizing problems would emerge. An intriguing pattern of correlations was found between EMSs and humor styles. Affiliative humor was negatively related to both Disconnection and Impaired Autonomy. As mentioned earlier, this humor style appears to be used to facilitate relationships and minimize interpersonal tension. Both of these EMSs are characterized by distinctively interpersonal components. Young et al. (2003) defined Disconnection and Rejection as the expectation that an individual’s needs for nurturance, safety,

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acceptance, and respect will not be reliably met. Impaired autonomy, in contrast, refers to the anticipation that one’s ability to function independently will be impaired. Self-Enhancing humor (e.g., maintaining a humorous perspective even in the face of stress or adversity) was negatively correlated with all four of the EMS domains and may serve a general protective function against dysphoria and negative beliefs. Aggressive humor correlated significantly only with the EMS dimension of Impaired Limits. This finding makes intuitive sense when one considers the nature of this EMS domain. Impaired Limits (e.g., entitlement, insufficient self-control) pertains to a deficiency in one’s direction, goal-setting, responsibility to others and internal limits. The use of aggressive humor may represent a method for elevating one’s social status in a situation by cutting others down. We view this form of humor as a potential compensatory strategy for perceived deficiencies in self-worth. Finally, Self-Defeating humor was significantly and positively related to all EMS domains. This excessively self-disparaging use of humor is likely used as a coping strategy to attempt to gain approval by amusing others. Rather than minimizing negative experiences and beliefs, however, this form of humor may have an effect opposite to the intended one. In sum, early maladaptive schemas are associated with less use of adaptive humor styles and greater use of maladaptive humor styles. Another aspect of this investigation was to test whether styles of humor serve as potential mediators of the relationship between EMSs and dysphoria. Young et al. (2003) had argued that particular coping styles may serve to exacerbate or maintain core beliefs. We conceptualize the four humor styles as coping and communication strategies that may be in part influenced by maladaptive schemas and may in turn play a role in increasing or decreasing depression. Mediator analyses revealed that the relationship between each of the four YSQ domains and dysphoria was mediated by various combinations of the humor styles, with moderate to strong combined mediating effect sizes (ranging from 35 to 83% of the total effects). In particular, Self-Enhancing humor showed a significant mediating effect on the relationships between BDI-II scores and all four YSQ domains. Thus, individuals with these maladaptive schemas appear to be less likely to develop this adaptive

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ability to see humor in potentially stressful circumstances, perhaps due to a more serious and generally negative outlook on life. In turn, this coping deficit seems to result in poorer emotion regulation and greater dysphoria. In addition, Self-Defeating humor mediated the effect of Impaired Limits and Exaggerated Standards on BDI-II scores. Finally, Affiliative humor mediated the relationship between Disconnection and dysphoria. A significant limitation, particularly in these mediator analyses, is that our measures were administered cross-sectionally. Recent conceptual work in the area of moderator and mediator analysis demonstrates that a priori assumptions about causal direction can lead to flawed conclusions that may in fact reverse the actual cause and effect relationships, fail to identify critical third variables, or result in modifying the wrong factor until the actual cause and effect relationship is identified in subsequent studies (Kraemer et al. 2008). This work also highlights the fact that temporal precedence is critical for identifying mediators and that this is important to consider in designing any study that aims to demonstrate causal mediation. Given the cross-sectional nature of our study, we cannot rule out that, for example, humor styles precede the formation of a particular EMS, that the experience of prior depression produces EMS, or even that a third variable is responsible for determining both EMS and humor style. It is also possible, for instance, that depressive symptomatology may affect the use of and/or reporting of humor styles. Although our correlational data cannot be used to determine the direction of causality, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that the link between these EMS and depressed mood may be (at least partially) mediated by reduced use of adaptive forms of humor in coping with stress and regulating emotions, and increased use of excessively selfdisparaging and avoidant humor. Another limitation in this study was that the sample was comprised mainly of Caucasian females and this limits the generalizability of these findings to other populations. For example, the level of endorsement of core belief domains was generally low. To what extent these relations between EMS and humor styles would hold in individuals who endorse these core beliefs more strongly (e.g., a clinical sample with a mood or other disorder requiring treatment) remains an open question. The focus of this investigation was also on

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depressive symptoms and not other variables that may have demonstrated different relationships with core beliefs and humor (e.g., externalizing pathology, impaired social interactions). Future research should examine the relationships among EMS, humor styles and depression using a prospective design in a sample of patients requiring treatment. These findings suggest the possibility that humor, as a coping style, could be a useful target for intervention in treatment for depression. Cognitive therapy approaches to depression already emphasize the relationship between beliefs and use of compensatory strategies—as well as how this relationship between beliefs and behaviors leads to further distress. In the present analysis, humor style could be said to be a compensation for specific kinds of EMS’s. Therefore, as with other compensatory strategies, it might be useful for therapist and patient to collaboratively evaluate the function of humor, and thereby establish whether the patient’s usual approach to humor leads to intended and/or unintended consequences. If patients were to recognize that their use of humor may have some drawbacks that they had not previously considered, more adaptive humor styles could be worked on or implemented on an experimental basis to discover what impact this has on mood. Certainly the results of this study suggest that these processes ought to be better understood in a clinical population. The findings from this study demonstrate that putative cognitive vulnerabilities to depression may be mediated by adaptive and maladaptive uses of humor in coping. Additional research is needed to examine the specific mechanisms by which EMSs and humor styles confer risk to depression. Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. This funding is gratefully acknowledged.

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