Environ Dev Sustain (2013) 15:23–38 DOI 10.1007/s10668-012-9366-4 REVIEW

Strategies for coastal ecosystem management in India S. M. Marale

Received: 19 January 2012 / Accepted: 8 June 2012 / Published online: 22 June 2012  Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract Present paper highlights various coastal issues and management strategies in India for effective environmental management for the sustainable development. The priorities for coastal management were selected based on the available date and material related to various international and national conferences. On the basis of secondary data, various strategies are suggested for the prioritized issues. These strategies include institutional strengthening, capacity building, policy plan, management plans for areas highly degraded, education and awareness; all these issues are discussed under the ecosystembased management framework which gives better direction and is crucial for India’s costal management. Keywords Coastal ecosystems
Coastal zone management strategies
Environmental planning

1 Introduction Indian coastal area is very rich in biological diversity and has some of the largest and biologically rich coastal ecosystems such as Gulf of Mannar, Mangroves of Sundarbans, one of the largest mangrove areas in the world. The presence of perennial rivers such as Brahmaputra, Ganges has contributed to large networks of backwaters, estuaries, salt marshes and mangroves. The coast also provides habitats for endangered marine turtles like Green and Olive Ridley turtles. It inhabits some of the largest coastal lagoons of the world like Chilika Lake. It contains some of the world’s finest coral ecosystems like Lakshadweep and Nicobar group of islands. Much of the India’s territory lies within a large peninsula, bounded by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. Kanyakumari, the southernmost point of the Indian mainland, is at the confluence of the two seas and the India Ocean. India has two union territories composed entirely of islands: S. M. Marale (&) Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM), 9 Institutional Area, First floor, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India e-mail: [email protected]

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Lakshadweep, in the Arabian Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands lying in Bay of Bengal. Chains of mountains run parallel to the eastern and western coasts. About 47 % of the population lives in the coastal states, and 60 % of the labour force is occupied in agriculture. The GDP contribution by sector is agriculture 25 %, industry 26 % and services 49 %. Human settlements with large populations and numerous small- and medium-scale industries, large industries, as well as power plants are situated along the coast. The combination of discharges of raw sewage and untreated industrial waste has caused serious degradation of coastal environments. Some of the largest and most dense urban agglomerations are Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Visakhapatnam. Since coastal population survives mainly on marine resources, overexploitation of essential resources has threatened the ecosystem (UNEP 2003; Mani 1997; UNEP/GPA 2006). In addition, construction activities along the coastal belt have contributed to the concern about natural imbalance. During past few decades, India has exhibited vigorous economic growth unmatched elsewhere in the industrial world. This impressive record has been marred by significant deterioration of the environment. The environment in India is one of the greatest development challenges today. The reason is not only the complexity of environmental issues between themselves but also the complex linkages between growth, population, poverty and the environment. What is needed is the political will, commitment and action-in the form of investments, education, and policy reform to reverse the alarming environmental degradation. Present paper highlights various coastal issues and management strategies for effective environmental management in India.

2 Coastal challenges 2.1 Coastal change The issues that coastal management programmes address are remarkably similar across a wide range of societal and geographic settings. In broad terms, they are the expression of anthropogenic change to coastal ecosystems brought by intensifying pressures from human activities that are expressed as follows: (1) the degradation or destruction of important coastal habitats, (2) declining near shore water quality and changes to the volume and quality of freshwater inflows to estuaries, (3) the inappropriate sitting of shorefront infrastructure and their subsequent high vulnerability to the impacts of floods, storms and erosion/accretion processes, (4) reduced access for traditional users and the public to the shore, wetland and fishing grounds and (5) the decline of fish and associated fisheries (Olsen and Christie 2000). In a regional scenario characterized by mass poverty, underdevelopment and environmental degradation, the socio-economic characteristics of coastal areas present a range of conditions between two extremes: few areas facing noticeable economic development due to urbanization and industrialization; and backward and depressed areas, sparsely populated and lacking in resources (Daconto 1997). 2.2 Root causes The root causes of the coastal ecosystem change lie in the social, institutional and political dimensions such as (1) rapid population growth, inadequate physical infrastructure to serve the current population, (2) the increasing concentration of wealth along the richest 20 % of the population, while the poorest continue to live in abject poverty and (3) the social equity issues raised by competition and the inability of the existing institutions and governance

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procedures to deal with these issues effectively (Olsen and Christie 2000). Economic growth and development, which perhaps are not sustainable, are accelerating in the region. In this context, strong institutional mechanisms and good governance principles need to guide the behaviour of both the political leaderships and the vast population in the region, which contribute to the existing problems. In the absence of which there will be deterioration in all relevant environmental and social indicators (UNEP/GPA 2006). Despite their ecological richness and the contribution to national economy, the coastal and marine areas in India have not received adequate protection and are under stress. Key challenges and Marine Area Management issues identified (World Bank 2010) for India relate to misuse, overuse of resources, degradation of ecosystems, conflicts among stakeholders, increasing damage from coastal hazards, threats to livelihood security and growing pressures from economic activities. The following issues are identified for coasts in India: 1. Increasing vulnerability of coastal areas and coastal communities from natural hazards. 2. Increasing urban and rural growth and economic needs. 3. Degradation of coastal and marine resources and habitats. 4. Cumulative contamination and pollution. 5. Lack of integrated planning. 6. Legal and policy frameworks are not adequately implemented. 7. Lack of involvement of relevant stakeholders in natural resource management. 8. Lack of adequate capacity, skill and knowledge in managing coastal zones. Thus, four basic aspects of management of coastal resources were systematically identified (Daconto 1997). 1. Managing pressures on coastal resource base arising due to population and economic dynamics and resource conflicts. 2. Identifying and pursuing new and additional development opportunities in agriculture, fisheries and offshore resources. 3. The development of an adequate infrastructure base for tourism, transportation, industry and housing. 4. Mitigate disastrous natural calamities, which frequently occur in coastal areas. 2.3 Goals and objectives The fundamental goals and features of the coastal management initiatives are similar in developed and developing nations, only priorities will change according to the conditions and circumstances. The ultimate goals of coastal management are (1) sustainable quality of life in coastal communities and (2) sustainable well-being of coastal ecosystems. Mature coastal management programmes make it very clear that it takes a sustained effort measured in decades and spanning several generations of a given programme, to achieve tangible expression of the end goal at a significant scale (Olsen et al. 1997). The government of India under Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2011 defines the goal of coastal management as ‘‘to ensure livelihood security to the fisher and other communities living in the coastal areas, to conserve and protect coastal stretches, its unique environment and its marine area and to promote development through sustainable manner based on scientific principles taking into account the dangers of natural hazards in coastal areas and sea level rise due to global

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warming’’. In order to regulate the indiscriminate development in the coastal areas and protect coastal regions, following objectives are defined (MoEF 2010). 1. To develop the capacity and institutions to implement the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. 2. To reduce vulnerability of coastal areas and coastal communities from natural hazards. 3. To develop integrated Coastal Zone Management Plans for better management of coastal areas. 4. To develop an institution to carry out studies and research in the area of coastal and marine management. 5. To conserve and protect the fragile coastal ecosystems. 6. To control pollution of coastal waters from land-based sources. 7. To demonstrate and pilot improved livelihood options of coastal communities threatened by coastal hazards and pollution.

3 Designing of projects While designing demonstration projects, three strategic decisions has to be taken up to proceed smoothly: (1) selecting the appropriate degree of initial integration across sectors (2) selecting where to initiate coastal management within a nation and (3) sustaining an initiative over a long enough period to attain significant changes in societal values and behaviour. It is suggested to begin with demonstration projects. Once these have proved their effectiveness, then these coastal management practices have to be replicated at other sites. Initially, focus upon the management of single sector, followed by multi-sectoral management, and finally, expand the management to other ecosystems. Moving forward to a new order where social justice, the accountability of those with power and stewardship of natural features are the hallmarks of success requires efforts that must be sustained over many decades. In India, there are several issues on the priority list of Coastal State Governments. Coastal erosion and habitat degradation are priority issues in Tamil Nadu (Mani 1997); habitat destruction, overexploitation of marine resources and marine pollution are identified as priority issues in the Gulf of Mannar (Sekar 2000). Dredging activities for vessel movements, sedimentation, shipping operations, solid and liquid waste deposition, ship breaking, mining, declining fisheries and mangroves and coral degradation are major problems in coastal State of Gujarat. (Stanley 2004). Coastal erosion, fresh water management, mangrove and coral conservation, sewage and solid waste, fishery resource exploitation, tourism, infrastructure development and environmental awareness are priority issues in Lakshadweep (CESS 2006). Similar problems are identified in the State of Kerala (Prakash and Prithviraj 1988). Tourism pressure, loss of biodiversity, deteriorating quality of life, sand mining and land reclamation are major concerns in Goa (Mascarenhas 1999). Coastal erosion, sedimentation and fresh water management are major issues in Maharashtra (ADB 2010), whereas land use pattern, residential and industrial water supply, waste disposal, transportation related air, soil and noise pollution and depletion of wetlands and mangroves is a major concern in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR), a capital of Maharashtra State (Murthy et al. 2011). Habitat destruction, water quality, quantity, sanitation and sewage systems, watershed management issues arise high in the prioritization list of Karnataka state (SER 2003). Declining fisheries

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and associate fisheries, coastal pollution and degradation of mangroves, other ecosystems and turtle nesting beaches are major problems of Orissa state (Jayappa 2008). Coastal erosion and anthropogenic pressures are identified as major problems in West Bengal. Coastal erosion, mining, coastal pollution are major problems identified in Andhra Pradesh. Ground water depletion, pollution in coastal areas, solid waste, tourism and industrial activities and habitat degradation are major concerns at Pondicherry. Coastal States and Union Territories are classified as higher and lower vulnerability States on the basis of loss caused due to natural disasters. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal are high vulnerable States, whereas coastal States and Union Territories of Goa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Daman and Diu, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands are classified as low vulnerable areas. Recent Tsunami occurred as a consequence of a powerful earthquake under the seabed in Sumatra, measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale, slammed into coastal villages in South East Asia on 26 December 2004. There was an estimated death toll of about 280,000 in eight countries, with 5 million people being affected. In India, the monthly productivity loss was calculated to be Rs. 4,110.26 lakhs. The highest loss was in Tamil Nadu followed by Andaman and Nicobar islands (Krishnmoorthy et al. 2005). Taking into consideration the problems in coastal areas of country, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has initiated the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project with assistance from the World Bank. This project has a comprehensive agenda that includes hazard mapping of the national coastline, livelihood improvement of coastal communities and coastal ecosystem conservation. The project involves a major investment of Rs. 1,156 crore in Phase I, covering the states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal. Phase II of this project covers all other States and Union Territories. To deal with the problems, an expert body has been set-up called Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM). This body implements and coordinates national and State components. The national component includes (1) mapping, delineation and demarcation of the hazard lines and delineation of sediment cells, (2) mapping, delineation and demarcation of coastal Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs), (3) capacity building of administrative departments, coastal zone management authorities, research and development institutes, and nation-wide training programme on integrated coastal zone management, (4) establishing National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management and (5) Green Action for National Dandi Heritage Initiative, a small project at Dandi in Gujarat in memory of 80 years of Gandhiji’s Dandi March. Various State components are dealt with by the State coastal management units with the support from national expert bodies. From the various literature, it becomes evident that the key physical environment problems are resource depletion and degradation, pollution and toxicity, natural disasters and sustaining livelihood. Of these problems, Land-Based Pollution (LBP) and employment generation appear top priority issues in India (Fig. 1) followed by resource exploitation and capacity building needs (Verlaan 2003). Land-based pollution and economic developments are top root causes of coastal environmental degradation (Fig. 2), followed by unsustainable fishing, climate change and natural disasters. Population, economic issues, law enforcement and lack of policy framework are major causes of environmental degradation. These issues required to be tackled at the local level, whereas the same issues have some remarkable consistent features while dealing at the national level. Major problems, causes and potential interventions identified, especially for India is shown in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 1 Important coastal management issues in India categorized on the basis of priority (high = 3, moderate = 2, low = 1)

Resource/CC Assessment Employment Land-based pollution Resource OE Protein source Sea-based pollution

1= Low 2= Moderate 3= High

Capacity building Mass mortality 0

1

2

3

4

Score

Land Based Poll Econ Dev Land use/Habitat loss Over/unsust fishing Sea Based Poll

1= Low 2= Medium 3= High 4= Very

Climate Ch Mining Natural Disa 0

1

2

3

4

Source Fig. 2 Sources of coastal degradation categorized on the basis of their impact on coastal environments (very high = 4, high = 3, medium = 2 and low = 1)

Major identified problems

Major causes

Potential interventions Institutional strengthening

Land Based Pollution Economic Development Land-use habitat destruction Non-sustainable fishing

Population

Capacity building

Economic issues

Policy Plan

Law enforcement

Control and Surveillance

Lack of policy

Highly Degraded/Sensitive

framework

Areas Management

practices Sea-based pollution

Project Capacity Building e.g. Sewage Systems Strengthening Coordinating Body

Fig. 3 Major coastal issues, root causes and potential interventions

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4 Planning for implementation Though the voluminous literature is available on coastal changes, no consensus has emerged on how to guide the planning process and convert scientific, ecological objectives into successful implementation. Important guidelines emerge for successful marine conservation planning, design and implementation from the studies of Lundquist and Granek (2005). Characteristics for successful conservation projects are noted as (1) stakeholder involvement, (2) explicit definition of objectives, (3) inclusion of available science, (4) monitoring programmes designed to evaluate objectives and (5) effective design of marine protected areas. While natural science modules such as natural resources, pollution and ecosystem health have received greatest attention, it is clear that the priority issues that must be addressed to restore and sustain the qualities of any ecosystem are rooted in the design and implementation of a reformed governance structure and a new planning and decision-making process. Essential steps include capacity building, regional collaboration, policy development and harmonization as overarching actions under management component, which require knowledge of governance capacity analysis, institutional design, trans-disciplinary collaboration and socio-economics (Olsen et al. 2006). Attention also be given to equally important issues of unemployment, social exclusion and deteriorating interpersonal relations, adequate housing and sanitation, water supply, greening urban nature reserves etc. Many of the ecological, economic and social problems of the world are inter-connected, and solutions require approaches that encourage the utilization of the cultural, human and natural resources of particular local places and regions. Only, few overarching terms can help to solve these problems by culminating available resources in scientific and professional way. Education for sustainable development (ESD) has emerged to serve that need (Mantew 2010). ESD which is a culmination of Environment Education (EE), Secular Education (SE) and Spiritual Education (Pandey and Vedak 2010) brings diverse themes such as poverty, rural development, gender equality, peace, human security, biodiversity, health, wasteful consumption and many others together. It is about awareness, knowledge and understanding of what is wrong in our current patterns of life and how we can, as individuals or communities transform them, if at all possible. This kind of education is the humanity’s best hope for sustainability, but only when it is employed as a tool to lead and direct our actions rather than as a last minute instrument to clean-up our mess (Mantew 2010). Ecology as another overarching term has proliferated into emerging fields of study such as medical and ecological sciences with great challenges and opportunities. It fosters and establishes integrative and trans-disciplinary programmes, necessary to ensure a sustainable future. The discipline of ecology, the study of the home or total environment, appears best equipped to guide higher learning viz., teaching, research and service into a world, requiring a holistic approach to problem solving, global planning, resource management, sustainability and synthesis (Barrette 2001). Spirituality is a part of the planning tool and effective strategy, which takes communities towards higher human aspirations such as psychological well-being, satisfaction, connectedness with others, hopefulness, meaning and purpose of life (Moreira-Almeida and Koenig 2007). Thus, spirituality is also an overarching strategy which is ignored at the global scale in the environmental movement. This strategy is a most crucial part of successful environmental strategies in developing countries, especially in India. With the globalization and technological innovations, people around the world are becoming healthy and wealthy, evils in the society are growing day by day and people are

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not able to live a decent life. Indian philosopher Radhakrishnan (ibid) noted that science has liberated man from much of the tyranny of the environment but has not freed him from the tyranny of his own nature. The sources of human happiness and social cooperation are not exactly the same as those of the scientific enquiry. For the proper adjustment of man to the new world, an education of the human spirit is necessary. It is realized that without a spiritual base, scientific progress would lead to the destruction of humanity. Spiritualizing management will help integrate the individual in all the domains of his personality. If a group of individuals join together in spiritual integration, we can have harmony in the family and the communities will make the nation strong. It is a group of integrated nations alone which can contribute to world peace. Further, it is noted that spirituality alone can correct today’s evils, such as arms race, wrong economic order, the division between the rich and poor nations, international crime, racism, monopolist tendencies, depletion of the earth’s resources, violation of human rights and many other evils. It is predicted that if human societies can make certain changes, then we can be optimistic about the future of humankind. To do this, we must merge the study of household (ecology) and the management of the household (economics), and ethics must include environmental values with human values. Bringing together, these three ‘E’s can create a holism commensurate with the great challenge for the future. To bring about the needed change and the merger of the three ‘E’s, we need to add the two ‘C’s, consensus and coalition. Finally, if we can dualize current capitalism by combining human and natural capital, we can really be optimistic about the future (Odum and Barrette 2005). But how to integrate these disciplines remained challenge. This idea of integration also expressed long back in the Indian literature by Swami Vivekananda (1921) as follows: ‘‘Our senses are only limited and within these limitations exists what we call our universe’’. At best, the external world is but one part of the whole phenomena. There are other parts, the mental, the moral and the intellectual. We must therefore want to find somewhere all the other planes of existence starting, and standing there, we should try to find a solution. The ancient sages penetrated deeper and deeper until they found that in the innermost core of the human soul is the centre of the whole universe, and standing there alone, we can find a common solution (Vivekananda 1921). On the basis of these observations, socio-psychological conditions and applicability of various overarching terms, we proposed few strategies for the success of ICZM in India as follows.

5 Strategies for ICZM in India 5.1 Institutional strengthening It is emphasized that services to poor people in the region would have to acquire increased attention. Dealing adequately with the sources of land-based marine pollution requires parallel attention to poverty particularly in relation to sanitation, cultivation practices, land use, and unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources. Economic growth and development which perhaps are not sustainable are accelerating in the region. In this context, strong institutional mechanisms and good governance principles need to guide the behaviour of both political leadership and the vast population in the region that contribute to existing problem (UNEP/GPA 2006). A generic institutional framework is proposed by Gupta and Fletcher (2001) for Integrated Coastal Management of India. This proposed framework consists of an ‘operating core’ which facilitates local issue identification, evaluation and monitoring;

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an ‘administrative component’ of Central and State government to set policy direction, manage funding and provide guidance on implementation and operation; a ‘strategic apex’ within Central government to oversee the transition from ICM concept to practice; and a ‘coordinating mechanism’ to allow open communication of ideas and information (Gupta and Fletcher 2001). It is also suggested to delineate government institutions, so that jurisdictional boundaries and duties were clear. It is felt to provide legal recognition and mandate by government to support co-management arrangements and changes in law, which can facilitate transfer of power to community organizations (BOBLME 2010). For an effective change in institutional framework, four actions are suggested by Gupta and Fletcher which are as follows: 1. Restructuring of current National and State Coastal Zone Management Authorities to be truly representative of all interested stakeholders. 2. Formulating site-specific operating cores that link scientists, academics, non-governmental organizations, local bodies, citizen groups and private sectors. 3. Establishment of a coastal and marine area information and data networking system that brings data together into a central repository acting as a node for data dissemination and identification of gaps in knowledge. 4. Formation of a cabinet unit for coastal and marine affairs that oversee the effort of change. 5.2 Capacity building Capacity building (human resource and organizational development) and environment education for coastal zone problems and concerns are a central concept in effective coastal management. The basic goal is to create the national capacity directly through institutions and indirectly through public education and involvement. The capacity building in India is aimed for MoEF as an apex national body of government of India and State ICZM. This element will help translate implementable actions on the ground by developing and availing human resource capacities, especially ecologist, risk assessment technical expert, geographical information system (GIS) expert and mapping capability, legal experts to evaluate context, sociologist/political scientist versed in governance assessment, economist/modellers, social and natural scientists with expertise in scenario development etc. There is also need for preliminary trainings for existing staff, which are being conducted now for selected areas such as procurement, financial management etc. However, important aspects of training like ecology and environmental education are yet to start. Building these capacities will require a combination of methodological guidance, training, consultation and provision of equipment so that effective monitoring of sectoral activities can be made possible. Training modules and refresher courses are under preparation (World Bank 2011). The State-level capacity building sub-components include (1) understanding nature and propagation of water pollution and its effects on coastal and marine life (2) research on important coastal ecological resources. This work is started in selected stretches in the priority investment States of Gujarat, Odisha (Orissa) and West Bengal and will continues in other States and Union territories in the second phase of project. 5.3 Policy plan There are 15 national legislations and 8 national policies related to conservation and sustainable use of coastal and marine biodiversity and environmental regulation in country.

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Of these legislations and policies, Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and National Environmental Policy, 2006 are umbrella concepts, giving authorities to the Central Government to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution. The National Environmental Policy stresses the need for an approval to coastal environmental regulation in a more holistic manner and preparation of ICZM plans. Recently introduced Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ), 2011 codifies 25 amendments made to CRZ, 1991 over the period 1991–2009. CRZ is classified into zones such as CRZ-I, CRZ-II, CRZ-III and CRZ-IV. It prohibits certain activities in the CRZ, such as setting-up and expansion of industries, operations or certain processes. This notification published on 26 April 2011 includes several new features. Most notable among these are special provision for Critical Vulnerable Coastal Areas (CVCAs) or Ecological Sensitive Areas (ESAs), and areas requiring special consideration. These areas will be managed with the involvement of local communities. Twelve CVCAs/ESAs are selected and will be declared and managed in the initial phase. In second phase, additional CVCAs will be taken up for the management from comprehensive list. Areas requiring special consideration namely Greater Mumbai, Kerala and Goa will be provided with special compensation and various activities will be regulated and various measures will be undertaken to protect these areas. 5.4 Management plans for areas highly degraded The need for effective habitat restoration is growing, but we must move beyond simply drawing lines on maps and calling the spaces restored habitat. We need to give much greater consideration to how we actually fill in these spaces to achieve the goals that are set. Few implications for practice restoration of highly degraded areas are suggested by Miller and Hobbs (2007) is as below. The first step in habitat restoration is to identify the target issues/species that the effort is intended to benefit. 1. Once the target issues identified that habitat restoration focuses on the conditions, including key resources, necessary for the resolution of issue. 2. Setting realistic restoration goals must be predicated on consideration of ecological, financial and social constraints that are in place. 3. There is unlikely to be a generic set of restoration actions that is applicable everywhere. Based on the available information on the severity of the degraded areas in the pilot investment areas, various activities are undertaken in India. These include mangrove plantation, bio-shield, shelterbelts, cyclone shelters, sewage system, coral regeneration and small-scale livelihood activities. 5.5 Environmental education Two concepts that guide the structure and content of the education should be (1) educating coastal managers to manage ecosystems i.e., understanding of food-web interactions, drivers of ecosystem function and how human activities interact with species and ecosystem services and (2) maintaining the continuity of learning process unless vision of education that seeks to empower people of all ages to resume responsibility of creating a sustainable future comes in reality. This learning process should further influence the process of education and implementation of ICM through several important themes such as leadership, administrative skills, public education and involvement and

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negotiating skills. These outcomes will shape ethical values by providing humankind with the opportunity to acquire the knowledge, skills and ability to make informed and ethical choices and to be aware of their individual, social and ecological responsibility (Mantew 2010). Environment education is a key ally in the endeavour of sustainable development. Professionals engaged in environment education need to work together with those from population education, economics, religion and other humanities and social sciences, including human rights and value education (Hopkins 1996). Environment education should be the most significant priority in future conservation strategies and action plans. It was observed by philosophers like Swami Vivekananda that the major cause of India’s ruin has been the monopolizing of the whole education and intelligence of the land, by dint of pride and royal authority, among a handful of men. If we are to rise again, we shall have to do it in the same way, i.e., by spreading education among the masses. The idea is to bring to the door of the meanest, the poorest and the noble ideas that the human race has developed both in and out of India, and let them think for themselves. Alienation of any kind from the masses of society, who are mostly poor—whether it be alienation through learning, through wealth or through force of arms—weakens the leadership of a country. Therefore, for a sustainable regeneration of these nations, top priority must be given to educating the masses and to restoring them their lost individuality. They should not only be given education, to make them self-reliant, but also be given ideas, moral training and an understanding of their own historical situation. Key characteristics of Education for sustainable development are interdisciplinary and holistic nature, value driven, community focused and problem-based, locally relevant and globally related, and participatory, democratic and experimental. Important recommendations helpful to improve social and environmental conditions on the basis of education are as follows (Mantew 2010): 1. Countries and communities must organize local level awareness campaigns and conferences to brainstorm current conditions. 2. Schools, educational systems, civil society leaders, businesses should critically examine current curricula and ascertain what is included, excluded, marginalized and more importantly think of the knowledge that serves the humanity towards advancement. 3. Reconsider the destructive impacts of narrow and selfish economic rationalities that value profitable outcomes above people, places and ecological mechanism of biosphere. 4. Learners in all communities, both privileged and underprivileged must be given the chance to reconnect with nature, local and distant places to understand what is required as responsible role. Individuals who have strength, concentration, love for human and nature, commitment, strong communication abilities, self-respect, long preparation, hard working and strong willpower only will be able to achieve the divine goal of education (Vivekananda 2010). Essential conditions necessary both in learner and in teacher include purity, a real thirst after knowledge, and perseverance. The true teacher is one who can throw his whole force into the tendency of taught. Without real sympathy, we can never teach well (Advaita Ashram 2008). Education, which does not help the common mass of people to equip themselves for the struggle, brings out strength of character, and the courage of lion is not a real education. Real education is that which enables one to stand on one’s own legs.

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Education must provide life-building, man-making, character-making assimilation of ideas (Advaita Ashram 2008). 5.6 Ecosystem-based management Today’s age is the age of the specialists. Each one knows more and more about less and less. We concentrate on some narrow field and forget the larger context in which we see the meaning of our own specialism. Modern specialization has led to the fragmentation of knowledge. With the increasing specialization, we lost a sense of the meaning of life and of social responsibility. With increasing sophisticated approaches and quantitative data in environmental management, researchers and policy makers find themselves drowning in data while gasping for how ecosystem works as a whole and responds to human activities. Masses of data simply cannot tell us how to implement ecosystem-based management (EBM) or determine priorities for doing so (Levin et al. 2009). The first principle of EBM is to move forward and use the best available knowledge in a sensible manner. We know that all ecosystems are complex. But we do not have to understand every bit of that complexity to make management successful and human’s uses sustainable (EBM tools network 2009). It comes down to having sound social and economic incentives, and if you have them, you can manage resources sustainably with a relatively modest amount of ecological complexity. We either put in the assessment models or put in the management strategies, it does not matter (EBM tools network 2009). It starts by identifying your priorities, urgent attention to most disturbing issues whether social or ecological, and then trying to find optimal solutions across all key issues and key objectives. Secondly, we are managing direct effects on ecosystem, which we know how to monitor and how to manage. But the question is how to monitor and manage indirect effects? We know ecosystems typically do not have sharp boundaries, rather ecosystems blend into each other and ecosystem boundaries are human construct. Some observations clearly indicate that some projects which have been on much larger scale are more success even though they are not perfect (EBM tools network 2009). Measures which seek to address the tactical objectives of habitat management without broad strategic framework are likely to fail to address the broad requirements of the conservation and sustainable use of resources. EBM is an approach that goes beyond examining single issues, species or ecosystem functions in isolation. Instead, it recognizes our ecosystems as a rich what they are a rich mix of elements that interact with each other in important ways. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that provides sustainable delivery of ecosystem services in an equitable way. What sets, EBM apart, is its holistic, integrated approach (UNEP 2010). It seeks to link previously sector-based management and to consider the full range of uses that affect a system. This requires deliberate work to build collaboration and coordination across diverse sectors that may be isolated from, or even in conflict with, one another. Embarking on EBM entails a strategic and iterative process that occurs in three general phases (UNEP 2010) as follows: 1. Establishing the foundation for EBM • • • • •

Identify target geographic area and key issues Build interest, expand participation and integrate sectors Develop a common understanding of the system Take stock of existing management practices Develop measurable goals and objectives

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2. Planning the EBM approach • • • •

Assess the ecosystem Evaluate regulatory frameworks Choose strategies Make trade-offs

3. Implementing and adapting EBM • • • •

Monitor change Evaluate and adapt Communicate and educate Develop sustainable financing

These steps should be undertaken across large scales that recognize connections, as well as multiple and cumulative impacts (UNEP 2010). 5.7 Spirituality-based management Spirituality is central to many of the daily decision people in the world and especially in the developing countries. Despite its immense importance, development literature and development practices have systematically avoided the topic of spirituality. If development is truly about strengthening people’s capacity to determine their own values and priorities, and to organize themselves to act on these, then researchers and practitioners must recognize the importance of spirituality in people’s lives, seek to better understand it, address it openly and give people the opportunity and the power to decide how both their development and their spirituality will and should shape each other (Ver Beek 2000). As noted by Indian philosopher Swami Vivekananda, ‘‘India will be raised, not with the power of flesh, but with the power of the spirit; not with the flag of destruction, but with the flag of peace and love’’. If it applies to India, it must be applicable to most of the developing countries having because of similar socio-economic background. Every nation has its own culture. Management constitutes a sub-culture, and it has to be influenced by the cultural ethos of the particular society. As environmental issues cannot be separated from management issues and methods, management cannot be divorced from life, because management and worker do not undergo any metamorphoses when they come to work. A manager or worker is also a parent, son, friend and above all a citizen. Therefore, without being a decent man one cannot become a good worker or manager (Sarma 1992). Spirituality is playing a great role in altering human behaviour for the welfare of society and universe as a whole since ages through the education of man and friendship among nations. Till the middle ages, spirituality serving individuals and communities bringing about a greater share of happiness. Unfortunately with the advancement of science, spirituality separated from life and actual progress and values of an ever-growing social life and conditions. Thoughtlessly, we have borrowed the management practices from England in the beginning and later from America and tried to apply them to our society with little or no modification. Most probably, material success of the west on the one hand and centuries of slavery on the other might have influenced us to turn to the west for technical know-how as well as management expertise. It appears that somehow it was forgotten that our culture provides its own psychological approach to man, work and society. This is an integral part of our philosophical approach to man universe and god (Sarma 1992).

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Importance of spirituality differs from individual to individual and nation to nation. The lower types of humanity in all nations find pleasure in the senses, while the cultured and the educated find it in philosophy, in the arts and sciences; spirituality is a still higher plane. Thus, spirituality as a study both for human welfare and for ecosystem well-being seems absolutely necessary (Vivekananda 1921). It is the greatest motive power that moves the human mind. No other ideas can put us into the same mass of energy as the spiritual. In building-up character, in making for everything that is good and great, in bringing peace to other and peace to one’s own self, religion is the highest motive power and therefore ought to be studied from that standpoint. The religious ideals of the future must embrace all that exists in the world and is good and great and at the same time have infinite scope for the future development (Vivekananda 1921). There are various ways and means to acquire and tap the source of inherent strength to carry out activities efficiently throughout our life which not only helps individual growth but also maintains harmonious relationships with community and nature. Through continuous practice of meditation stills the mind and purges it of all pollutions. Good thought lead to good action. When mind is pure, the action pattern is balanced. The spiritual texts also help elevate management to new heights and herald a new prosperous world order. Management can be integrated with the lessons from the spiritual books, so that the objectives like material prospects are fulfilled along with an inner development of the human being (Vishwanathan 1992). Acknowledgments Author is thankful to Society of Integrated Coastal Management and World Bank funded Integrated Coastal Management Project; Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. Author is thankful to Director SICOM, Dr. R. K. Mishra (Scientist, MoES), Sri Tapas Paul (The World Bank) Dr. D. M. Mahajan, Dr. R. S. Gavali, Prof. P. G. Saptarshi and Prof. K. R. Rao (University of Pune).

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