Child Ind Res https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9572-1

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of Working Children in Tehran, Iran Solmaz Pasyar 1 & Sajjad Rezaei 2 Seyed Valiollah Mousavi 2

&

Accepted: 12 June 2018 # Springer Nature B.V. 2018

Abstract Child labor is a bitter reality in developing countries and is necessary to be addressed in terms of its psychological aspects. Considering the limitations of the conducted studies and cultural environment in Iran, it is still unknown that how these children cope with their stresses, how the quality and type of their attachment styles are, and how resilient they are to inconveniences. In a causal-comparative study, a sample of 100 working children in Tehran using convenient sampling method and a sample of 150 non-working children using purposive sampling were selected; all the samples were asked to fill Endler and Parker Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations(CISS21), Collins and Read Attachment Styles Scale, and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC).The obtained data were analyzed using ANCOVA and MANCOVA in the form of 2 × 2 factorial using SPSS-16. After adjusting for education level, the results showed that working children mostly use emotion-oriented strategy to cope with stress but the avoidance-oriented strategy is less used by these children. Regardless of group member factor, girls and boys used respectively emotion-oriented and avoidance strategies more frequently. However, in the interaction between group and gender, the results revealed that boys in working children group obtained the lowest scores in task-oriented strategy. In addition, working children group (especially girls), compared to non-working children presented more insecurity in terms of attachment style. Finally, it was found that working children were less resilient than non-working children, but

* Sajjad Rezaei [email protected] Solmaz Pasyar [email protected] Seyed Valiollah Mousavi [email protected]

1

Department of Clinical psychology, Islamic Azad University Rasht branch, Rasht, Iran

2

Department of Psychology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

S. Pasyar et al.

the main effect of gender alone and the interaction between group and gender on resilience scores was not statistically significant(p > 0.05). The findings emphasized the protective role of resilience and secure attachment in preventing possible psychological and behavioral disorders in working children. Moreover, the results demonstrated that risky role of emotion-oriented strategy and insecure attachment style in exacerbating the problems of these children, especially for girls. Keywords Stress-coping strategies . Attachment styles . Resiliency . Working children

1 Introduction One of the indicators for measuring the growth of communities by World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF is the status of children in each country (WHO & UNICEF 2009). The phenomenon of child labor is one of the social problems affecting many major cities of the today’s world. The phenomenon strikes developed and developing societies in the same way (Hosseini 2006). Although child labor is considered a bitter and undeniable reality in all societies, ignoring the consequences of this phenomenon would impose irreparable damage on any society (WHO and UNICEF 2009). According to a report by UNICEF, one-sixth of children around the world are Bworking children^. Based on statistics published by the International Labor Organization, the number of these children is estimated to be about 168 million, 85 million of whom are involved in hazardous jobs (International Labor Organization 2013). Nearly, 49% of the population in Iran is aged 0–18 years, who are known as children in international conventions. However, the lack of accurate statistics does not allow us to discuss the accurate number of working children. According to a report by the Research Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly in 2006, about 3,600,000 children aged 6 to 17 years do not go to school. Obviously, this number cannot be unrelated to the statistics of child labor in Iran (Ghasemzade 2003; Hosseini 2006). Due to the working and living situations of these children, they are exposed to adverse effects of physical, psychological, and sexual health and social hazards (Thomas de Benitez 2011; Watthayu et al. 2011; Aptekar 1994; Ray et al. 2011). In addition, Psychological harms such as weakness in cognitive domains and emotional growth, depression, and types of anxiety disorders are highly prevalent among working children (Akresh et al. 2012; Arshad et al. 2015). According to studies conducted in Iran, most of these harms are related to child abuse, turbulent family status, and exposure to physical, social, and psychological stress caused by long working hours. It seems that psychological discomforts of these children are exacerbated by the lifestyle they lead on streets (Hosseini 2006). In this regard, Braun-Lewensohn et al. (2010) examined the role of ethnicity, gender, and age in explaining psychological distress and various coping strategies of health outcomes among them. They reported a low but significant effect of gender and interaction between ethnicity and age in psychological distress. In addition, it has been shown that working girls have less economic opportunities than boys, and high-risk behaviors such as self-harm and suicide are more common among these girls (Woan et al. 2013). Therefore, the importance of paying attention to mental

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

health of these children, despite the rising rate of exposure to high-risk behaviors and traumatic events, and living under the shadow of stressors, prioritizes it as an indispensable necessity. Many studies have shown that the experience of permanent stresses in children leads to a negative impact on their development and make them susceptible to risky behaviors in adulthood (Bagner et al. 2009). Meanwhile, working children are among vulnerable children who are exposed to a wide range of stresses because of early entry into the work cycle, long presence in unfavorable environments, and reduction of family and social support networks (Akbari Aliabadi et al. 2016). How people understand mental pressures and how they respond is the issue addressed more than the stressful experiences in the recent decades (Cohen et al. 2007). The term Bconfrontation^ refers to all the methods people apply to overcome or reduce their psychological stress. The fact is that proper coping can greatly reduce the severity of stress and its physical and psychological consequences in the future (Schneiderman et al. 2005; Yamashita et al. 2012). For example, studies of Soleymani et al. (2016) and Secades et al. (2016) show that individuals who use effective coping styles are reinforced in terms of resilience, and they cope better in a confrontation with stress, especially against depression, anxiety, and stress. Braun-Lewensohn et al. (2010) also showed that different styles of coping strategies explain one-third of changes in stress reactions. In the recent study, only the emotion-oriented coping style was mediated in the relationship between objective and subjective exposure to missile attacks and stress reactions. It has long been recognized that using methods such as information seeking and problem-oriented coping are directly correlated with adaptation indices (Billings and Moos 1981). Also, individuals who apply active cognitive strategies more frequently and use avoidance coping less show a better adaptation. Moreover, emotional and avoidance copings lead to a less satisfying adaptation to stressful events, and those who use these strategies are usually anxious and depressed. Understanding this issue provides us with an insight into the way working children cope with harmful situations and their consequences (Schneiderman et al. 2005; Yamashita et al. 2012). For example, Kombarakaran (2004) studied the coping styles of street children in Mumbai and found that they use inefficient coping styles more frequently. Mambwe (1997) also studied street children in Lusaka (Zambia) and showed that the most stresses experienced by working children are lack of proper home, lack of education, violence, and hunger; moreover, most of these children use avoidant coping styles, which lead to more negative behaviors such as drug abuse and theft. Kidd and Carroll (2007) studied street children and concluded that the use of avoidant and repressive coping strategies and alcohol consumption are among the most effective factors in suicidal attempts in these individuals. In addition, research suggests a significant difference between men and women in the use of coping styles (Hampel and Petermann 2005; Smith et al. 2003). Several studies have shown that the process of socialization in girls and boys are different due to differences in roles that they will play in the future and thus they are encouraged to use some coping styles, which sometimes pose them to blame (Frydenberg and Lewis 1996). In this context, Ptacek et al. (1994) exposed men and women to a stressful situation under controlled experimental conditions and found that, despite similar cognitive appraisal of both genders, they employ different coping strategies. Women reported seeking social support and using emotion-focused coping to a greater extent

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than men, whereas men reported using relatively more problem-focused coping than women. One of the factors that facilitate children’ vulnerability is the attachment style. Attachment is a specific relationship that necessitates an exchange of pleasure, care, and tranquility (Bowlby 1982). Several studies have shown that primary emotional bonds have a considerable impact on personality development, the formation of interpersonal relationships, social adjustment, specific coping practices, and mental health of children in the future (Montag and Panksepp 2017; Griffin and Bartholomew 1994). Bowlby (1973) believes that one’s relationships with caregivers in early childhood affect the ultimate limit of social adjustment in the next stages of life, and the way people confront threatening and stressful conditions is the result of their attachment system activation (Bowlby 1973). Hence, the attachment can be taken as a comprehensive framework for explaining individual differences in adjustment and behavioral disorders(Karreman and Vingerhoets 2012). Research evidencesuggests a negative relationship between secure attachment style and anti-social behaviors (Ogilvie et al. 2014; Ross and Pfäfflin 2007) and a direct relationship between avoidant and ambivalent styles with antisocial behaviors (Ogilvie et al. 2014; Fossati et al. 2009). For example, Ogilvie et al. (2014) found that avoidant and ambivalent attachment styles have a direct and strong relationship with all kinds of criminal acts such as sexual and violent crime, nonviolence crimes, and domestic violence, even in the absence of psychopathological condition; however, secure attachment style, in contrast, have a negative and strong relationship with all sorts of criminality. Nevertheless, research on attachment in working children also shows an insecure attachment style. Donald and Swart-Kruger (1994) argue that the lack or loss of adequate relationships with one parent in terms of mental health is the biggest problem for street children and working children. For example, Sharifi et al. (2012) showed that students of pseudo-family centers had lower mean scores for secure attachment and higher avoidant styles. In these centers, based on genders, girls had avoidant attachment style while boys had ambivalent attachment style. Jalali (2010) also found that working children, compared to non-working children, often (92.2%) had an avoidant attachment, which is very significant. Resiliency includes flexibility, recovery, and return to the initial state after confronting unpleasant situations. Psychological resilience is referred to as the ability to bounce back or recover from stressful circumstances in order to reach a whole adjustment to the environment (Sagone and De Caroli 2014). Many researchers have found a significant negative correlation between resilience and psychological problems and believe that they can resist stressors and overcome them by promoting individual resilience (Fedina et al. 2017; Hu et al. 2015; Campbell-Sills et al. 2006). Moljord et al. (2014) reported that people with high resilience also had lower depression. A study by Goldstein et al. (2013) showed that those with high resilience had a lower dependency on nicotine and lower levels of depression. Therefore, one can state that research in this field and using results for promoting resiliency in working children reduce psychological and social harms and develops more adjustment in these children in times of stress and psychological pressures; because many studies point to a low level of resilience in Iranian child labor (for example, Taherpour and FathiAghdam 2016). In other cultures, Sayem and Kidd (2013) studied street children in the age range of 14 to 17 years in Dhaka (Bangladesh) and showed that the level of resilience in these children is very

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

low. They also found that the existence of economic constraints on the family in addition to the experience of domestic violence is associated with low resiliency. It seems that there is a close relationship between coping strategies, attachment quality, and resilience, in which one facilitates the other and reduces the factors that threaten working children. The results of research on adolescents show that attachment style is directly associated with the adjustment of the adaptive coping strategy. Such adolescents enjoy higher levels of resilience and present less anxiety and hostility compared to their peers who have insecure attachment style (Hashemi and Jowkar 2013; Li 2008). In addition, Iranian researchers have identified a significant relationship between attachment styles and problem-solving styles, which means that street children who have insecure attachment style use an emotion-oriented problem-solving strategy. Also, the results of this study showed no significant difference between two groups of boys and girls in terms of emotion-oriented problem-solving style and problem-oriented coping strategy (Hassanzadeh et al. 2012). The results of another study, which investigated the relationship between attachment styles and resilience in women, showed a direct relationship between secure attachment style and resiliency, and an inverse relationship between insecure attachment style and resiliency (Akbari et al. 2010). Moreover, Vulpe and Dafinoiu (2012) showed that direct coping with stress is a predictor of resiliency. Researchers such as Fife et al. (2008) revealed that resilient people tend to have more problem-oriented coping strategies, and the use of these coping styles reduces the likelihood of disease acquisition and increases the willingness of individuals to receive health services. Given the paucity of existing studies and cultural conditions governing Iran, it is still unknown that how these children cope with their stresses, how the quality and type of their attachments are, and how resilient they are to inconveniences. Considering the harms that working children may confront in their lives, significance of investigation and identification of the relevant factors as the basis for a mental health activation, and the protective role of these factors in the reduction of stress and prevention of harmful behaviors such as drug abuse, it is necessary to conduct fundamental studies in this field. The present study was conducted to found: 1) How different are working children and non-working children in terms of stress-coping strategies, attachment style, and resilience? And 2) what is the direction and intensity of the relationship between the main variables of research (which are Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency) in the two groups of working children and non-working children? Furthermore, differences between boys and girls in these variables will be discussed.

2 Methodology 2.1 Participants The statistical population included all working children (aged 12–18 years) visiting the institutions supporting working children in Tehran, Department of Social Affairs and Welfare of District 15 of Tehran, Molavi Child labor Center, and the Grand Bazaar of Tehran (as the case group) and also all students in Tehran schools (as the control group). Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used for the selection of samples of working children and non-working children, respectively. Considering the F

S. Pasyar et al.

ratio, the main and interactive effects of independent variables (group membership × gender), and a covariate variable (education level of subjects, because it was not possible to match the groups based on it), version 3.1.9.2 of G*Power software was used to determine the sample size (Faul et al. 2007). Assuming the probability of a type-1 error (alpha) at a 0.05level of significance (95% level of confidence), a test power of 0.95, and the moderate effect size of 0.06, the sample size for each group was determined to be 90 (total of 180). Considering a 10% dropout, the final sample size of each group was finally decided to be 99 (total of 198). In general, the inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) full satisfaction for participating in the study; 2) having an elementary level of literacy; and 3) being in the age range of 12–18 years. On the other hand, the exclusion criteriawere: 1) improper collaboration in completing evaluations, 2) expression of any dissatisfaction during the execution of the tests, and 3) inability to continue the study because of physical problems or affliction with cognitive and psychiatric disorders. 2.2 Procedures Questionnaires were distributed among the subjects through in-person attendance at centers and NGOs supporting working children while for children attending schools, the questionnaire was distributed by visiting the schools. After obtaining informed consent and confirming the confidentiality of the information, every participantanswered questions individually or in a group (maximum of 10 individuals). After giving brief explanations about the questionnaires and how they should be completed, the research tools were provided to children. Each child should complete three questionnaires along with a demographic questionnaire such as age, gender, education level, and other information shown in Table 1. 2.3 Measures 2.3.1 Demographics Form This form asks subjects to provide information about their age, gender, job status, the number of siblings, and level of education. 2.3.2 Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS-21) The short-form of 21-item Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS-21) was developed by Calsbeek et al. (2003) based on the original questionnaire of coping with stressful conditions (Endler and Parker 1990). The difference between the short form and the original version is in the number of their items. The original form, which is coping with stressful situations, consists of 48 items while the short form has only 21 items. This scale measures the task-oriented strategy (7 items), which refers to the control of emotions and planning for a step-by-step solving problems, the emotionoriented strategy (7 items) in which one focuses on emotions caused by a problem rather than the problem itself to reduce negative emotions instead of solving the problem, and avoidance-oriented strategy (7 items) in which one avoids to confront a problem. CISS-21 is a self-reporting scale based on a 5-point Likert scale (from

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of... Table 1 Demographic features of subjects in two groups of working and non-working children Characteristics

Working children (n = 100)

Non-working children (n = 150)

n

%

n

%

Girl

46

46

68

45.33

Boy

54

54

82

54.67

Primary school

34

34

16

10.67

Secondary guidance

43

43

94

62.67

High school

23

23

40

26.67

Both are alive

85

85

144

96

Only Father’s death

14

14

4

2.67

Only Mother’s death

1

1

2

1.33

None

60

60

130

86.67

Sick father

19

19

10

6.67

Sick mother

11

11

10

6.67

Both patients

10

10

0

0

No

95

95

145

96.67

Yes

5

5

5

3.33

df

Chi

1

0.01**

3

21.32

2

11.55**

3

29.82**

1

0.43

Gender

Educational status

Parental life

Parental disease history

Divorced Parents

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

never = 1 to very much = 5) in which subjects determine that to what extent they use each of the desired strategies. The results of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by Calsbeek et al. (2002) confirmed the three-factorial structure of the short form of CISS21, which indicates construct validity. The psychometric indices of this tool have been approved in Iran (Hojatinia et al. 2013). For instance, in the study of Bazzazian et al. (2010) with a sample of healthy adolescents, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for three subscales of task-oriented, avoidance-oriented, and emotion-oriented was determined to be 0.86, 0.79, and 0.85, respectively. In addition, the factorial structure of scales was also maintained in different samples, such as healthy individuals and patients with chronic diseases, which suggests acceptable construct validity of this questionnaire. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the three subscales of task-oriented, emotionoriented, and avoidance-oriented in the working children were 0.74, 0.71, and 0.72, respectively. The same coefficients for non-working children were 0.79, 0.76, and 0.77, respectively. 2.3.3 Revised Adult Attachment Scale (RAAS) Although this scale is made for adults, it was adapted to be used in this study based on specifications proposed by Fernández and Dufey (2015). The scale, which consists of

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18 items, involves self-evaluation of relationship establishment skills and selfdescription of attachment formation. Factor analysis showed 3 subscales each of which with 6 items. These three subscales are Dependence (D) that refers to the extent to which the subjects rely on and trust others; that is whether they are available when they needed. The second subscale is Closeness (C), which presents the degree of comfort in relation to affection and affinity. Finally, Anxiety (A) measures the fear of having a relationship (Mallinckrodt and Jeong 2015). Based on the descriptionsof the three main attachment styles provided in Hazan and Shaver questionnaire of adults’ attachment, Collins and Read (1990) developed the items of their own questionnaire. Subscale of anxiety is consistent with ambivalent/anxious attachment style. Closeness is a bipolar dimension that basically compares the security and avoidance descriptions. Therefore, closeness is consistent with secure attachment, and subscale of dependence can be considered as the opposite of avoidant attachment. The psychometric indices of this tool have been approved in Iran (Zaree et al. 2013). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and anxious subscales in the working children were 0.73, 0.69, and 0.71, respectively. The same coefficients for non-working children were 0.74, 0.71, and 0.72, respectively. 2.3.4 Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) This scale was developed by Connor and Davidson in 2003 for individuals aged 15 years or over. CD-RISC consists of 25 items that are scored based on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = totally false to 4 = always true). The minimum and maximum scores on this scale are equal to 0 and 100, respectively. The results of discriminant validity showed that this scale is able to differentiate resilient people from non-resilient ones very well (Connor and Davidson 2003). In a study on a sample of Spanish entrepreneurs, the validity of this scale was confirmed by factor analysis and its internal consistency was obtained to be0.75 by Cronbach’s alpha (Manzano-García and Ayala Calvo 2013). In Iran, the psychometric features of CD-RISC have been approved and its internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha has been determined to be 0.89. In addition, the test-retest reliability of this scale has been obtained as 0.73 (Mohammadi 2008). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of this scale for working and non-working children was 0.79 and 0.83, respectively. 2.4 Data Analysis The obtained data were imported in to SPSS-16 and then were analyzed using descriptive statistics (percentage, frequency, mean, standard deviation, tables, and figures). At the level of univariate analyses, independent chi-square (χ2) and independent t-test were used. To compare working children and non-working children in terms of stress-coping strategies, attachment styles, and resiliency, ANCOVA and MANCOVA were used after adjusting the demographic differences. Box’s M statistic was used to investigate the assumption of variance-covariance matriceshomogeneity. When this value is not significant, the assumption of matrices homogeneity is established and Wilk’s Lambda (λ) can be applied to examine the significance of multivariate effects. In addition, once this assumption is not established, Pillai’s Trace test (V) is used to determine the significance of multivariate effects (Meyers et al. 2006). Finally, when the interaction between group

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

(working or non-working child) and gender (boy or girl) was significant, the plot of interactive effects was used to show the results better. In ANCOVA, a P-value less than 0.05 was determined to be significant. In MANCOVA, due to the existence of three dependent variables for each subscale of stress-coping strategies and attachment styles, Bonferroni corrected alpha level was used for the number of dependent variables (α/3 adjusted P-value = 0.017).

3 Results Based on what previously mentioned, the demographic features of subjects will be discussed first. Table 1 shows demographic features of subjects in two groups of working children and non-working children. According to the results of the chi-square test, there is a significant difference between working and non-working children in terms of educational status, parental life, and divorced parents. Working children have lower educational levels, their father had died with a higher probability, and one or both of their parents likely had a history of illness. However, no significant difference was found between the two groups in terms of gender and parental divorce. In Table 2, working and non-working children have been compared to their age and educational level. As the results of independent t-test indicate, there is no significant difference between the two groups regarding age. However, the results of this test revealed that educational level of working children is significantly lower than non-working children (7.33 versus 8.28). Due to the significance of education level between the two groups, education level was controlled through the variance analyses. Table 3 shows mean and standard deviation of the two groups of working children and non-working children for stress-coping strategies, attachment styles, and resilience by gender. Before the execution of MANCOVA for stress-coping strategies scores, Box’s M statistic presented a significant difference between the groups in the assumption of variance-covariance matrices homogeneity (Box’s M = 93.49, F18,151,168.67 = 2.70, p < 0.0001). To evaluate the significance of themean differences between groups, three stress-coping strategyscoreswere simultaneously analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance. The results of Pillai’s Trace test indicated that the effects of group membership (V = 0.189, F3,243 = 18.837, p < 0.0001) and gender (boys and girls) are statistically significant(V = 0.139, F3,243 = 13.039, p < 0.0001). Such a difference was also found for the interactive effect of group and gender (V = 0.046, F3,243 = 3.917, p = Table 2 Comparison of working and non-working children for their age and educational level based on independent t-test Characteristics age average (in years) Average education level (in years)

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

Groups

n

M ± SD

t 1.35

Non-Working

150

14.58 ± 1.46

Working

100

14.84 ± 1.52

Non-Working

150

8.28 ± 1.65

Working

100

7.33 ± 2.21

3.67**

S. Pasyar et al. Table 3 Descriptive indices of stress-coping strategies, attachment styles, and resiliencein the two groups of working and non-working children by gender Characteristics

Gender

Groups

Mean

Std. deviation

Range

N

Task-Oriented

Girls

Non-Working

24.78

4.48

14–35

68

Working

23.09

2.93

14–29

46

Total

24.10

3.99

14–35

114

Non-Working

25.41

3.93

10–35

82

Working

23.92

5.98

13–51

54

Total

24.82

4.89

10–51

136

Non-Working

21.25

5.43

9–34

68

Working

26.93

5.44

12–35

46 114

Boys

Emotion-Oriented

Girls

Boys

avoidance-oriented

Girls

Boys

secure

Girls

Boys

avoidant

Girls

Boys

ambivalent/anxious

Girls

Boys

Resilience total score

Girls

Boys

Total

23.54

6.10

9–35

Non-Working

20.71

5.06

9–32

82

Working

21.52

4.64

11–32

54

Total

21.03

4.90

9–32

136

Non-Working

18.69

4.29

8–30

68

Working

13.98

4.64

6–26

46

Total

16.79

4.99

6–30

114

Non-Working

20.49

4.88

8–29

82

Working

17.76

4.78

8–28

54

Total

19.40

5.00

8–29

136

Non-Working

22.15

3.47

13–30

68

Working

17.13

3.74

10–25

46

Total

20.12

4.34

10–30

114

Non-Working

23.83

3.36

11–30

82

Working

21.46

3.40

12–27

54

Total

22.89

3.56

11–30

136

Non-Working

19.37

2.07

15–24

68

Working

18.98

1.83

15–24

46

Total

19.21

1.98

15–24

114

Non-Working

19.63

1.91

16–26

82

Working

18.94

2.99

9–25

54

Total

19.36

2.41

9–26

136

Non-Working

19.35

2.90

12–29

68

Working

18.41

3.71

13–28

46

Total

18.97

3.27

12–29

114

Non-Working

19.28

3.84

10–30

82

Working

17.92

3.56

11–27

54

Total

18.74

3.78

10–30

136

Non-Working

67.79

12.10

38–93

68

Working

54.43

8.28

40–74

46

Total

62.40

12.55

38–93

114

Non-Working

67.99

12.70

33–109

82

Working

58.81

12.44

36–88

54

Total

64.34

13.34

33–109

136

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

0.009) on the linear combination of scores for dependent variables. Table 4 presents the analysis of the effects between subjects, the total significance of MANCOVA, and also the separate effect of each independent variable on stress-coping strategies and attachment styles, after adjusting the years of education (educational attainment). Based on the results of MANCOVA (Table 4), group membership has a significant effect on scores of emotion-oriented style [ή2 = 0.063, F(1,245) = 16.457, p < 0.0001]. As can be seen, considering the mean values of these groups (Table 3), working children present higher levels of emotion-oriented strategy than non-working children (24.01 versus 20.95). The main effect of group membership also had a significant effect on avoidant style scores [ή2 = 0.129, F(1,245) = 32.241, p < 0.0001]. In this connection, considering the mean values of these groups (Table 3), non-working children showed higher levels of avoidant style than working children (19.67 versus 16.02). Furthermore, the main effect of gender on emotion-oriented coping styles was observed to be statistically significant [ή2 = 0.061, F(1,234) = 15.97, p = 0.004], suggesting that girls compared to boys obtained higher scores for emotion-oriented coping strategies (23.54 versus 21.03). The effect of gender on avoidant coping strategy was also significant [ή2 = 0.080, F(1,245) = 21.171, p = 0.004]. Accordingly, it can be stated that boys compared to girls obtained higher scores for avoidant coping strategies (19.40 versus 16.79). However, the interactive effect of group membership and gender was Table 4 The results of two MANCOVA on the comparison of the mean scores of stress-coping strategies and attachment styles between the two groups of working and non-working children by gender Source

Dependent variables

Mean square

df

F

Partial Eta squared

Gender

Task-Oriented

29.17

1

1.46

.01

Emotion-Oriented

415.26

1

15.98**

.06

avoidance- Oriented

461.87

1

21.17**

.08

Groups

Gender × groups

Gender

Groups

Gender × groups

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

Task-Oriented

132.62

1

6.66*

.03

Emotion-Oriented

427.69

1

16.46**

.06

Avoidance- Oriented

790.63

1

36.24**

.13

Task-Oriented

.204

1

.01

.00

Emotion-Oriented

214.50

1

8.25**

.03

Avoidance- Oriented

61.46

1

2.81

.01

Secure

539.77

1

44.68**

.15 .00

Avoidant

.19

1

.04

Ambivalent

1.42

1

.11

.00

Secure

785.43

1

65.01**

.21

Avoidant

11.10

1

2.25

.01

Ambivalent

99.13

1

8.03

.03

Secure

108.97

1

9.02**

.04

Avoidant

3.22

1

.65

.00

Ambivalent

.01

1

.001

.00

S. Pasyar et al.

Estimated marginal means for emotionoriented

only statistically significant for emotion-oriented style [ή2 = 0.033, F(1,234) = 0.474, p = 0.004]. This result indicates that, except for emotion-oriented style, the interaction of group and gender has no impact on other styles. To examine the main effects and interaction of gender and group membership, interactive effect plot was used (Fig. 1). Based on this figure, working girls obtained the highest scores for the emotionoriented style. In Table 5, the statistical characteristics including a mean and standard deviation of subjects in two groups of working children and non-working children are presented based on attachment scores and gender segregation. Before the execution of MANCOVA for attachment styles, results of Box’s M analysis presented a significant difference between the groups in the assumption of variancecovariance matrices homogeneity (Box’s M = 30.27, F18,15,116 = 1.64, p = 0.042). To evaluate the significance of the mean difference between groups, scores related to the three styles of attachment were simultaneously analyzed using the multivariate analysis of variance. The results of Wilk’s Lambda demonstrated that the main effect of group membership (λ = 0.308, F3,243 = 24.96, p < 0.0001) and gender (λ = 0.189, F3,243 = 15.29, p < 0.0001) on the linear combination of scores for dependent variables is statistically significant. Such a significant difference was also observed for the interaction between group and gender (λ = 0.038, F3,243 = 3.086, p = 0.0028). Table 6 shows the effects between subjects, the overall significance of MANCOVA model, as well as the individual effect of each independent variable after adjusting academic years on attachment styles. Based on the results of MANCOVA in Table 6, the group membership has a significant effect on scores of the secure attachment style [ή2 = 0.210, F(1,243) = 65.011, p < 0.0001]. Considering the mean values of these groups (Table 3), non-working children presented higher levels of secure attachment style than working children. The main effect of gender on the secure attachment style was determined to be statistically significant [ή2 = 0.154, F(1,243) = 44.677, p < 0.0001]. Also, the mean values of these groups show that boys gained higher scores in this attachment style. Finally, the interactive effect of group and

28

Working non-working

26

24

22

20

Girls

Boys

Gender Fig. 1 The interactive effect of group membership and gender on emotion-oriented style

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of... Table 5 The results of ANCOVA on the comparison of the mean scores of resilience between the two groups of working and non-working children by gender Source

Mean square

df

F

Partial Eta squared

Gender

310.96

1

2.23

.01

Groups

7077.72

1

50.74**

.17

Gender ×groups

254.54

1

1.82

.01

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

gender was only significanton secure attachment style[ή2 = 0.036, F(1,243) = 9.020, p = 0.003]. This result indicates that, except for the secure attachment style, there was no significant difference between attachment styles in terms of the interaction between group and gender. To examine the main effects and interaction of gender and group, interactive effect plot was used (Fig. 2). Based on Fig. 2, working children obtained lower scores than non-working children in secure attachment style. This figure also indicates that working girls present a higher level of insecurity. Before the execution of ANCOVA, the results of Levin’s test for adjusted F ratios showed that the error variance of groups for resilience variable washomogeneous (F3,246 = 3.95, p = 0.058). As the results of ANCOVA in Table 5 shows, the main effect of group membership on resilience scores was statistically significant [ή2 = 0.172, F(1,243) = 50.740, p < 0.0001]. Considering the mean values of these groups (Table 3), non-working children presented higher levels of resilience than working children. However, the main effect of gender and the interactive effect of group and gender on resilience were not determined to be significant. Table 6 presents the matrix of correlations for the studied variables in groups of working and non-working children. The correlation coefficients estimated without consideration of correlations between their subscales showed that there is a significant correlation between resilience with problem-oriented coping strategies and secure attachment style in both working and non-working children groups. Table 6 Pearson Correlation Matrix of the main variables of the research for working and non-working children Groups

Working children (n = 100)

Variables

1

2

1- Task-Oriented

1

2- Emotion-Oriented

.04

1

3- avoidance-oriented

.28**

.15

3

4

5

Non-working children (n = 150) 6

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 1

4- secure

.29

−.10

.18

1

5- avoidant

−.01

.08

.03

−.01

1

6- ambivalent/anxious

.35**

.61**

.71**

.06

.05

1

7- Resilience total score

.47**

−.13

.27**

.37**

−.04

.18*

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

7 1

**

*

−.17

1

.16

−.26**

1

.31

−.46**

.44**

.14

.12

−.18

−.18

.11

.39**

.63**

.05

−.09

1

.42**

−.17

.42**

.32**

.01

.28**

**

1

1 1 1

Estimated marginal means for secure attachment style

S. Pasyar et al.

24

22

20

18 non-working working

16

Girls

Boys

Gender Fig. 2 The interactive effect of group membership and gender on the secure attachment style

4 Discussion The present study aimed to compare two groups of working children and non-working children in terms of stress-coping strategies, attachment styles, and resilience. In addition, the discovery of gender differences was also at the forefront. The collected data, which were from Tehran, showed that working children in comparison to nonworking children more probably lost their fathers, and one or both of their parents more likely had a history of illness. These findings show why these children are pushed to work in relation to demographic information. As found in this study, working at early ages can be one of the main factors of staying out of formal education. Education is a key factor that can play a decisive role in children’s adaptation (El Nokali et al. 2010). Therefore, education level was included in all analyses of variance as a covariate. The main findings of this study on stress-coping strategies revealed that working children use emotion-oriented strategy in a confrontation with stresses more than non-working children, but they also show less avoidance. These results are somewhat consistent with the findings of Kidd and Carroll (2007), Afrasiabi and Akbarzadeh (2007), Hosseini (2006), Kombarakaran (2004), Matud (2004), and Mambwe (1997). Regardless of the group membership, girls presented higher levels of emotion-orientation and boys preferred avoidance. In this context, considering the interaction of group and gender, the destructive strategy of emotion-oriented in a confrontation with stress is more common among working girls. The findings of this study regarding gender differences for coping styles are consistent with studies of Matud (2004) and Zimmer-Gembeck and Skinner (2008). An explanation for the obtained results is that neglecting working children, especially girls who are one of the vulnerable layers of the society, has destructive psychological consequences, such as employing emotion-oriented style for dealing with stress. It seems that working children who work due to the pressure and difficulties of life, and the normal process of intellectual, mental, emotional, and social development, personality development, and socialization, are at risk. A remarkable number of adolescents experience many stressful factors on a daily

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

basis, explaining why they are emotionally demanding a temporary and quick solution for their problems. The results of a research in Iran revealed that hostility, instability, restlessness, insecurity caused by anxiety, and other negative emotions are abundantly observed in working children (Hosseini 2006). These psychological discomforts cannot be unrelated to the dysfunction of the problem-solving process. The consequence of using ineffective coping strategies has been well described in a study conducted by King and Chassin (2008). They found that emotion-oriented coping strategies in working children are significantly associated with high-risk sexual behaviors, catching AIDS, drug abuse, delinquency, and other negative emotions. One of the reasons that these children use ineffective coping styles is their low resilience. People who have high resiliency in a confrontation with difficult stressful situation return to the initial state faster and they are more flexible. Also, they are less likely have a tendency toward risky behaviors and delinquency (Cuomo et al. 2008; Buckner et al. 2003). Researchers believe that resilient individuals are able to create and develop a range of coping skills that support them in challenging situations. In fact, resilient people are more inclined to use problemoriented coping strategies and the use of this style more likely reduces the tendency toward delinquent behaviors (Campbell-Sills et al. 2006). Therefore, these children, due to low levels of resilience, suffer from lack of adequate coping skills in solving their problems. The coping skills of these children are mainly avoiding, immediate resolution of the problem with the least thought about its outcome, and aggressive behaviors (Chubaty 2001). In fact, it can be stated that working children tend to use emotion-oriented strategies instead of task-oriented strategies that bring them closer to their objectives, reduce their stresses, and keep them away from stressful realities. Denial of a stressful situation leads to passive and avoidant behavior and does not allow one to use problem-oriented styles to achieve his/her goals. To improve the orientation of working children toward task-oriented strategies, it is recommended reestablishing emotional and supportive relationships between them and their family members. However, the present study revealed that working children use avoidant strategy for solving problems less than non-working children do. This finding may have been obtained in the light of assertiveness, extraversion, and the existence of a supportive network for street and working children. However, the interpretation of this finding requires further studies. It seems that gender variable can affect the process of stress creation through the traditional socialization pattern. According to Rosario et al. (1988), the traditional sexual role of women contains characteristics such as dependency, admission, emotional expression, lack of assertiveness, and dependency on others’ needs. By contrast, the traditional sexual role of men includes characteristics such as self-confidence, assertiveness, and objective-orientation. These characteristics make the admission and emotional expression e.g., weakness, insensibility, and fear for men and solidarity and authority for women very difficult. As the data obtained in this study suggest, it seems that girls show negative emotions, such as fear, anxiety, and self-blaming more frequently compared to boys. Moreover, the consequence of this situation has shown itself in the high scores of insecure attachments in girls (especially in working children). Besides, the differences observed between the two sexes in coping strategies can be attributed to different factors such as the emphasis on social environment on the independency of boys and dependency and relations in girls (Kausar and Munir 2004); differences in nurturing practices (Ptacek et al. 1994); characteristic differences or sexual norms (Gentry et al. 2007); gender identity difference between men and women (Renk and Creasey 2003); the structure and cultural

S. Pasyar et al.

characteristics of the community, and the tools used to measure the strategies and age groups. In line with Rexrode et al. (2008), we believe that achieving valid findings regarding these differences and their interpretation is possible when the applied scale is developed based on the cultural characteristics of the community and, in particular, their coefficients of validity for both genders are satisfactory. Evaluation of the attachment styles showed that working children obtained lower scores than non-working children for secure attachment style, and girls on the average presented higher levels of insecure attachment. Considering the interaction between group and gender, it was found that working girls obtained the lowest scores on secure attachment style. This is consistent with the general findings of Allen et al. (2002), Savage (2014), Mousavi et al. (2016), Donald and Swart-Kruger (1994), Sharifi et al. (2012) and Jalali (2010). This finding explains why street and working children, compared to children with a secure attachment style, are more likely to have tendencies for delinquency, personality disorders, especially antisocial personality disorders, and behavioral abnormalities (Li 2008; Mousavi et al. 2016). Working children, due to parental insensitivity and unresponsiveness to their needs and their wishes and exposure to street harms and abuses (especially girls) are highly prone to insecure attachment system. These children are not are not under the control and supervision of parents and they work on streets, which is why insecure attachment style develops in them. Research shows that weak supervision is associated with insecure attachment style (Crowell et al. 2002). Laub and Sampson (1988) also found a strong relationship between inappropriate maternal supervision and insecure attachment. Therefore, if the family function is appropriate and has a warm and intimate relationship, it leads to a secure attachment to the family. Moreover, if family functioning is inappropriate and consists of weak and cold relationships, it creates an avoidant insecure attachment. In general, it can be explained that the way a family functions, the quality of care, and the way in which people interact with each other determine the type of attachment in a child, adolescent, and adult. Therefore, a family that has strong emotional relationships with its offspring and applies decent levels of behavior, then a secure attachment will be developed in children and these children are less susceptible to behavioral disorders. As a result, sensitivity and responsiveness of parents to the needs and desires of the child develops secure attachment style. As explained previously, other parts of findings suggest that working children, especially girls, are more vulnerable to secure attachment. Consequently, they hardly make emotional relationships with others, hardly love others, do not let others love them, always are worried about being alone or being dismissed by others, have a negative attitude toward themselves and their beloved ones, and often feel unhappy about their relationships. The differences in attachment styles of the two genders are probably due to different encounters and interactions of parents and others with the two genders. Accordingly, girls have a strong emotional bond with an attachment scheme; and thus are more harmed in the absence of affective relationships with their mother or family. The different quality of care and interaction with the two sexes in the families can certainly be related to the observed differences in attachment styles of children. In addition, this difference can be due to the interaction and expectations of parents and other factors regarding the two sexes in society. Certainly, the psychological characteristics of the two sexes will be affected in the development of different attachment styles.

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

This finding is consistent with the results of Rice and Mirzadeh (2000), Van IJzendoorn (1997), Mousavi et al. (2016), and Allen et al. (1998). Finally, investigation of the resilience of subjects revealed that non-working children present higher levels of resilience than working children. This result is consistent with the studies of Taherpour and FathiAghdam (2016) and Sayem and Kidd (2013). Consistent with the finding of Libório and Ungar (2010), our results showed that labor of children is a destructive path for developing resilience. Especially, children’s growth in poor societies can be accompanied by weakness in resilience. In addition, the results of Saffarinya and Bazyari Meimand (2012),consistent with the findings of the current study, showed that children in deprived areas obtain lower scores on emotional-social resiliency than those in non-deprived areas. According to some researchers (Singh 2005), resilience creates a mechanism of positive compromisecalled as Bprotective factors^, which their risks can be effectively reduced by personal, family, and social factors. These factors includeA) individual resources such as cognitive capacity and self-esteem, and B) family resources such as solidarity, conflict management, and relation with the family; and C)environmental factors such as social protection and security, meaningful andsupportive communication, and socioeconomic and cultural resources (Eldar-Avidan et al. 2009). In addition to individual protective factors, according to the social-ecological theory (Folke 2006), environmental and contextual protective factors, including the context of one’s relationship with the family, local community (e.g., school programs and policies, social-supportive services, and access to experienced trainers), and a wider community (e.g., culture, media, economic status, and enjoyment of facilities) altogether play a significant role in resilience of individuals. In this regard, Benard (2004) also argues that support and caring relationships are a fundamental source of resilience and states that these individuals provide intimacy, care and attention to the individual and. As a result, they help people to recognize themselves and, in particular, their abilities and resources better. From his point of view, the other aspect of the social environment that promotes resilience is the provision of opportunities for participation and cooperation. Providing these opportunities in the family, school, and community provides permissions for the individual to practice and develop skills such as solving social problems, decision-makingand expressing oneself. As the findings of the present study show, working children group is deprived of these opportunities. Furthermore, the expectation of success in a difficult situation is significantly lower in working children comparing to the non-workinggroup; because poor, violent, and impoverished physical and social settings in streets and workshops can endanger the resilience of working children as one of the risk factors. In the context of correlation between the research variables, the findings showed that there is a significant correlation between resilience with problem-oriented coping strategies and secure attachment style in both groups of working and non-working children. The first part of the findings, that is the relationship between resilience with problem-oriented strategy, is consistent with the findings of Soleymani et al. (2016), Secades et al. (2016), and Fife et al. (2008). Resilience, as a basic sense of control, allows an individual to draw on and access to a list of capabilities, which play an important role in dealing with stressful life events as a source of resistance and protective shield (Masten 2001). Using problem-oriented coping style in stressful situations causes a person to focus on the problem in an attempt to solve the problem. As a result, this provides intellectual coherence that identifies the source of stress,

S. Pasyar et al.

which makes the source of stress to be evaluated in a controlled manner. In this case, even if the problem is not solved, identifying the source of stress on one hand and increasing the awareness and feeling of control over stressors on the other, helps improve mental health, which can be the product of this coping process. The second part of the findings regarding the relationship between resilience and secure attachment styles is consistent with the studies of Hassanzadeh et al. (2012) and Akbari et al. (2010). In explaining this finding, it can be noted that individuals with secure attachments assess stressful events less threatening and more likely seek help from others to solve their problems. Because individuals with a secure attachment style have been able to create a supportive social network in their living environment, due to the openness and positive outcomes of their encounter with the environment and their extensive interpersonal relationships, they are able to increase resilience and be psychological hardiness. Another explanation is that secured and insecure attached individuals use different coping styles. People with secure attachment use more effective methods and problem-solving strategies, and those with insecure/ambivalent attachment use more inefficient methods (such as distancing) and emotion-oriented strategies that ultimately affect the resilience of these individuals. The current research has all the eligibilities for using a causal-comparative design. Moreover, it is recommended separately measuring the quality of attachment to parents and peers and the impact of these attachments on boys and girls. A shortcoming of this study is that it was not possible to differentiate between native and non-native working children in Tehran. Generally, after adjusting the differences in terms of years of academic, the results on the risky role of emotion-oriented stress-coping strategy and insecure attachment style, especially for girls, demonstrated exacerbating the problems of these children. This study also showed that, regardless of gender differences, the level of resilience is declined in working children, which can have a devastating role in the continuation of their problems at street and workshop levels. Therefore, it is recommended to perform educational interventions to improve problemsolving skills, strengthen the parent-child relationship, and restore the resilience of these children. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities of institutions supporting working children in Tehran, Department of Social Affairs and Welfare of District 15 of Tehran, and Molavi Child labor Center who helped us in sampling. Author Contributions S.P: designed and executed the study and collaborated with writing the paper. S.V.M: Collaborated with the design and wrote the paper. S.R: Analyzed the data and critically reviewed the manuscript. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical Approval All ethics procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Stress-coping Strategies, Attachment Styles, and Resiliency of...

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