THE DECLINE OF MANUFACTURING IN INNER-CITY JOHANNESBURG 1980-1994 C.M. ROGERSONAND J.M. ROGERSON
Over the past two decades an important body of research in the United States and the United Kingdom has focused upon issues of intra-urban manufacturing change (Keeble 1978; Massey and Meegan 1978; Scott 1982; Fothergill et al. 1986). In particular, as policy-makers 'discovered' the problems of ailing inner-city locales, researchers undertook a series of investigations to interpret the changing character of declining inner areas and to chart the scale and causes of the demise of manufacturing in the inner cities (Lloyd and Mason 1978). Since the early 1960s the inner areas of all Britain's major cities have recorded massive industrial losses; the cases of inner-city industrial decline in London, Manchester, Clydeside, Birmingham and Merseyside have been extensively documented (Butt 1978; Dennis 1978; Keeble 1978; Lloyd and Mason 1978; Mason 1980; Fothergill et al. 1986). Overall, in these areas it was shown that large-scale job losses of inner-city industry resulted from a combination of plant closures, the in situ shrinkage of firms' labour forces, the relocation of firms to the periphery, and the failure of the inner cities to generate sufficient numbers of jobs through the establishment of new manufacturing activities. Not until the 1990s did the issue of the economic demise of South Africa's inner cities prompt growing public and policy concern. Unlike the situation in the United Kingdom or America, however, little detailed research has been conducted so far in South Africa on the economy of the inner cities generally and of the manufacturing sector in particular. Indeed, for the last quarter-century, local researchers have tended to overlook issues of intraurban patterns of manufacturing change, preferring instead to direct their efforts to examining regional industrial change and the consequences of the state's decentralisation initiatives (Rogerson 1992). The objective in this paper is to address this void in South African urban research by analysing the patterns of formal sector industrial activity and manufacturing change in the inner city of Johannesburg between 1980 and 1994. The specific aims are twofold. First, to provide a detailed description of the contemporary manufacturing economy of the Johannesburg inner city, identifying the
18
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
major sectors of industry, spatial patterns of activities, and the size structure of the inner-city manufacturing economy. The second task is to examine manufacturing change in the Johannesburg inner city since 1980. The focus, in particular, is upon shifts occurring in terms of different sectors of activity and different size structures of manufacturing establishments. Applying a component of change analysis similar to that used in British research, an attempt is made to isolate the key elements of change in terms of patterns of industrial births, deaths and relocations of production. The discussion is organised in terms of three major sections of material. First, a review is presented of the major data sources and methods used in this study. The second and third sections present the research findings. Section 2 deals with the profile of the contemporary inner city. Section 3 covers changes in the manufacturing economy between 1980 and 1994, concentrating particularly on recent shifts occurring between 1989 and 1994.
SCOPE, S O U R C E S A N D M E T H O D S OF I N V E S T I G A T I O N Throughout this investigation 'the inner city' is defined here as including the following areas of Johannesburg: the CBD, Marshalltown, Ferreirasdorp, Braamfontein, Doornfontein, New Doornfontein, Selby, Fordsburg, Newtown, New Centre, Village Main, Wemmer, City and Suburban, and Salisbury Claims (see map on p.16). For the past two decades little substantial research has been undertaken on intra-urban patterns and changes of manufacturing in Johannesburg and almost no research conducted on the inner city. One key reason for the lack of adequate inner-city industrial research relates to difficulties of existing data sources. The published data from the industrial census, for example, furnish information only on the scale of the magisterial district of Johannesburg as a whole with no fine-grained breakdown given on an area basis. Although these data are valuable as a comparative base they afford no insight into the details of intra~ patterns of manufacturing. Another useful comparative source is the series of industrial directories produced since 1989 by Map Studio (RR Marketing 1993). Such directories and maps are helpful in terms of gaining a broad overview of the nature of the differing mix of activities taking place in particular parts of the city. None the less, they cannot be used to piece together a detailed picture on industry as a whole because they fail to provide sufficient information on each establishment to allow researchers to ascertain even the broad nature of activity (for example, whether a firm is in wholesaling or manufacturing) and certainly insufficient information to determine precise industrial category or employment-size group. Although both the industrial census and map directories were consulted in this study, the major data source used here is the University of South Africa Bureau of Market Research (1994) Industrial Register. This register
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
19
provides a national data base of 14 655 industrial establishments (November 1994) which is continually in the process of being updated. For each establishment information is provided as to type of manufacturing activity (in terms of 6-digit SIC code), location of factory, and size of establishment (in terms of 22 different employment-size groups). In addition, the Register provides an indication of production output in terms of an index of electricity consumption; this index was not, however, utilised in this investigation. The industrial register has existed since the late 1960s and is currently available on disk or hard copy from the Bureau of Market Research. In terms of the goals of this investigation, the major advantage of the Industrial Register is that it allows the construction of a detailed profile of the contemporary industrial base of the inner city as a whole as well as for its different component parts. Moreover, by comparing the industrial register data for 1994 with parallel data available for 1989 and 1980, it is possible to build up a picture of the shifts taking place in the inner-city manufacturing economy in respect of sectoral change, size change of industry, and the significance of births, deaths and relocations of factories in affecting the overall manufacturing profile. The overall profile of present-day manufacturing in the inner city was obtained by extracting the inner-city establishments from the listing of all Johannesburg factories in the 1994 Industrial Register. From this process, a listing of establishments in the city by Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code and size group was obtained for detailed analysis. The task of determining the geographical distribution of manufacturing within the inner city necessitated the sorting of the almost eight hundred Johannesburg inner-city establishments into different spatial groupings which were organised around different city township areas (Braamfontein, New Centre, Selby, etc.). This work was undertaken by searching the 1994 data base using a computer-based sorting programme (Advanced Pick) which called up establishments on the basis of distinct geographical areas (City and Suburban, Fordsburg or Doornfontein, for example). For the considerable number of enterprises which were located within the Johannesburg CBD, the sorting task was undertaken on a street-by-street basis. This method of data capture on a spatial basis was successful in precisely locating over 90 per cent of the inner-city establishments within the Johannesburg study area in 1994. The analysis of patterns of change in the inner-city manufacturing economy demanded the building up of comparable data sets to those generated for 1994. For 1989 this was undertaken by using the same process of extracting from a 1989 industrial register those inner-city establishments from the listing of all Johannesburg industrial plants. For 1980, however, a much longer work process was necessary as the available 1980 Industrial Register is organised as a national register which is listed on an alphabetical basis. It was therefore necessary first to extract the Johannesburg 1980
20
U R B A N F O R U M 6:1, 1995
establishments from the national listing of roughly 15 000 establishments before narrowing attention on the group of inner-city industries to generate the usable, comparable data sets to those of 1989 and 1994. Cross-checking of establishments, both manually and by computer search, allowed the development of separate listings of industrial births, deaths and factory relocations. From the above work, it was possible therefore to generate comparable data sets on 1980, 1989 and 1994 profiles of industry in the inner city as differentiated by SIC code and by employment size group. For 1994, also, it was possible to generate a detailed spatial analysis; such a geographical breakdown by area within the inner city was not possible in terms of the 1989 and 1980 data sources which were available only on a hard copy basis and thus could not be searched using the Advanced Pick computer sorting programme. The Industrial Register of the Bureau of Market Research therefore provides a valuable data base for analysing and examining detailed patterns of manufacturing change in South Africa. In particular, it is a unique data source for detailed fine-grained geographical studies on an intra-urban scale of analysis. That said, it must be appreciated that the Industrial Register is not without shortcomings and these need to be acknowledged. In using the Industrial Register, a number of problems were recognised. The most important distortion was that many companies were frequently listed as having a production operation in the inner city of Johannesburg whereas their actual business there was a corporate office or wholesaling facility rather than a manufacturing operation. This problem arose particularly in respect of large multi-plant corporations. In an attempt to overcome this particular shortcoming in the data set, detailed cross-checks were undertaken with a variety of other sources to ascertain that companies were engaged in manufacturing operations in inner-city Johannesburg. The 1994, 1989 and 1980 listings of large (defined as over 250 employees) enterprises were all cross-checked against the respective Rand-Pretoria directories and, in a number of cases, cross-checking was pursued by telephoning the companies. Through this process of cross-checking a considerable number of entries of 'ghost' factories or other incorrect listings in the Industrial Register were amended. A further problem that emerged only in terms of the 1980 listing was that the Register sometimes gave only the postal address rather than the precise physical address of the enterprise. This necessitated a wider cross-check of the listing than for 1989 and 1994. One final point of note is that the Register provides information on employment size only in terms of codes for particular size groups of enterprises (for example, Code 01 = 1-3 employees, Code 07 = 31-40 employees and Code 20 = 1 001-1 500 employees). This meant that in terms of estimating employment sizes for the inner city as a whole or by industD" group, it was necessary to calculate low, medium and high employment estimates. As the problem of estimation arose, particularly in terms of the larger
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
21
establishments in the sample, it was decided to calculate low, m e d i u m and high estimates whenever establishments were larger than Code 11, which indicates between 81 and 100 employees. The procedure followed was very simple as illustrated here: Code 12 = 101-150 employees, the low estimate used 101 employees, the m e d i u m 125 employees and the high estimate used a figure of 150 employees. Wherever a detailed analysis is undertaken of e m p l o y m e n t data, the m e d i u m estimate on employment is used. In summary, every effort was made in this research to remove inaccuracies and to cross-check the Industrial Register with other available sources of information. Through the laborious procedure of careful crosschecks which were undertaken, it is argued that the validity of the Industrial Register information has been greatly enhanced. Without such a set of cross-checks and amendments, major biases and errors would have been introduced into the analysis. Against this background of the sources and detailed methods deployed in this investigation, attention now turns to present the findings of our study.
THE CONTEMPORARY INNER-CITY MANUFACTURING ECONOMY The profile of the contemporary inner-city manufacturing economy will unfold in two sub-sections. In turn, these describe (1) the size and industrial structure, and (2) the spatial patterns and characteristics of each area of the inner city.
Size and Structure The overall size and structure of the inner-city manufacturing economy is shown in Table 1. It is estimated that the inner-city manufacturing economy comprises a total of 791 establishments which employ between 35 760 and 43 262 workers. In terms of the leading sectors of production, it is evident that nearly 70 per cent of the total number of enterprises is accounted for by six sectors: 9 9 9 9 9 9
Printing and publishing (17,4 per cent) Clothing (16,6 per cent) Other manufacturing (primarily jewellery and diamond cutting 13,9 per cent) Fabricated metals (8,1 per cent) Textiles (6,6 per cent) Food (5,8 per cent)
In terms of proportionate share of total manufacturing employment in the inner city, a slightly different ordering of sectors of production emerges from the analysis of the m e d i u m estimates of total employment. Almost two-
22
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
T a b l e 1. T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i n n e r - c i t y m a n u f a c t u n n g
economy
1994.
i..........................................................N.u.m.~e.r...............~ ..........i..........Lo~. .................Me..d..iu.~.....i.........~f~.a.........................~ .............. i...F~176 d...................................................~ ........i.............S.,C...i..........~ . ~ .................2.471........i..........2.~.S....................6.,~........... ....B.eve~.g.e.s.................. ~ ........9.:.!.......i.....................5...............................5........i....................5........................................i i Tobacco
: ......................................................
Textiles
1
*. ........................
i
i
~..............
52
0 1
i
25
25
25
0 1
6,6
!
2 863
3 121
3 394
7,9
.J. . . . . . . . . .
~ .......................................................................................................
i
J. . . . . . . . . . . . .
LC.!o.t.h..!..n.~........................................131 ........i.........!~,e...................s.....2.=~................9..2..! .2...............~.9..!9..s.................~3.,~......... Leather
.............................................
1.5. .................... .1..:9.. ..................
..F...oq..~ar ........................................... ..3........i ........... ~
539.
. 554
.................... 57..9.. ..................... !....4. ..........
..................... 7~ ..................... .e..8..3.. ..................... ..9.~.................... 2..:.I. ...........
.... ..W.,..o~I. ,....&...c.o..rk, .................................. .9........ I............ .I.,.I....,.. i.............. ..3.7.6................37.6 ..................... ..3.7..6.........i ............. 1...0...........
Furniture
27
i
3,4
}
1 044
1 116
1 191
28
.....I~/.i..n.t!.n..g. ................................... .'I.,:38................ I...7.,4....,..i .......... 7.....6..9.5 .................. 8..?.!.~............... 10.1. ~34... .................. 22.,6............ i..!nd.us3.~aLC..h.e..m..~.~!.s........ 5 ....i........... 9..~......i.............. .!a.7....................... ~!.~ .................... ..2.~......(............ 0.:5.......... 9 O.!.h.e.r...C...h..e.m~.~!s. ....................... 2.! .................... ..2..7.............. 9Z.S ....... ! 023 ................ U.2..2....................... .2...q...........
Petroleum 0 .............................................................................................. .~..........................7..............................7.............................Z.............
-
...P.e~.teu.m...a.~.coa.! ..................... .I..................... ..o.:.~ ............................ .8.. .......................... ~ .......................... ..a. .................... 9.,.3........... i
Rubber
5
i
0 6
i
137
137
137
0,3
i
'II Ii. ( ZZZZZZZZIII I..0.,3........i ZZZI]:CZZZ ZZZII . .?.ZZZZII ZZZZ ] ZZi ..~.o.~e~. ................................................ ..2........ I........... ................. 8...3. .............. .8.3........................ 8.3..................... 0...2.......... Glass
8
i
10
i
349
373
398
0 9
...o...t .h.er..N...o.n.-:.M...e.!a! ...................... .7........~ ........... ..0....9........i .............. ..3.~....................... ~.7.. ..................... ..4.9...7. ...................... !,.!..........
Iron and Steel Non-Ferrous
Fabricated Metal
2 0
0 3
64
8,1
=
626 .
!
2 227
725 .
.
825
2 423
2 620
......M....a.~ne..~...................................... ..3..a. .................... ..4..,.8........ i.............. ~..0.~............ ..e.~ ................ ~ .....E.!.e..ct.d.~!...M..a~.!ne.~....~.......... .~ ........ i........... ~:..a........i .......... !....2.6~................... !..~
i Motor Vehicles i...,T.rans~...E .qui .P.me.nt..,... i Scientific E.qui.p.ment i
21 2 22
18
.
6,1
................... .2..,..2. ......
.................. !....~....................... .3.,.4...........
2,7 i 802 802 802 2 0 ...............0..3.......[.................~ .........................68 .........................,.68.....................9.;2............. 2 8 i 722 ~ 795 870 2 0
i...~er..~.".-~.f.~.., t ........... i ........ 1..I.o................. .I..3.,..9........i .......... 2.~....4 .......... =.-~4......-i.......... 2...s.~.................... .6,~ ..........
! Total
791
100
i
35 760
i
39 486
thirds of industrial employment is c o n c e n t r a t e d p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h a r e (in d e s c e n d i n g r a n k o r d e r ) : 9 9 9 9 9 9
!
again
43 262
100
in s i x s e c t o r s
of
C l o t h i n g (23,3 p e r c e n t ) P r i n t i n g a n d p u b l i s h i n g (22,6 p e r c e n t ) T e x t i l e s (7,9 p e r c e n t ) Other manufacturing (6,9 p e r c e n t ) F o o d (6,3 p e r c e n t ) F a b r i c a t e d m e t a l s (6,1 p e r c e n t )
O v e r a l l , t h e r e f o r e , it is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e i n n e r - c i t y m a n u f a c t u r i n g e c o n o m y is r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d u p o n t h e s e s i x l e a d i n g s e c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h c l o t h i n g a n d t e x i l e s m a n u f a c t u r e a n d p r i n t i n g a n d p u b l i s h i n g its m o s t significant elements. I n T a b l e 2 a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o c o m p a r e t h e s i z e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
23
inner-city manufacturing economy to that of Johannesburg as a whole. The comparison can only be made against the data contained in the 1988 industrial census, the findings of which were only released in 1994; since the 1988 census it appears likely that the overall total manufacturing sector in Johannesburg has declined further (see Rogerson and Rogerson 1995). Table 2. The structure of the inner-city manufacturing economy (1994) compared to that of Johannesburg as a whole (1988).
...............................................................
"~ai;ii~;~en/'Ev"~m~ioj;'m6;~T"'"'~"~
Jhb ..................................................................................................................... Food
207
.... .B..ever.a..g.e.s ........................................................ ..T...e~!=e.s.. .........................................................
.......... " ~ i n n e r : " "
....... ~ " ~ 5 # / . " " '
. ~ h ~ ................................................. C : . ~ ........................................
17 023
10,5
6,3
- 4,2
2 ............................. 2. . . ~ S . .................... ! . 5 ...................... -. .................... : . . . . h 5 .........
~..~. ............................ 5 . . 9 . ~ 2 "................... .3.:7.. .................... 7 , 9 .................. * . . . ~ , . ~ ........
. . . C = g t h ! n ~ ........................................................ 2 4 2 . ......................... !6..71..4. ................. !0..:3 ................ 2.3.,.3 ................. . 1 . 3 , . 0 ........
W o o d and Cork
78
.... F~..m..!~.~re ...................................................... C P.a~er. ................................................................ LPn'nt.!ng.. ........................................................
1 472
2!4. .......................... ~9.8.~ ~
............................ .3.~
0 9
10
+ 0,1
.................... .6;7.. ................... 2,8 ................. -....~,..9. ........ .................... 2.2 .................... 0...8. ................. -._~.,~. .......
S.29 .......................... LS..226. .................... 9:4 ................ ~2.,6 ................. -!.3..,.2. ........
...!nd..u.s.t..n..aL.C..h.em!~!.s............................... .3...2. ............................. L.3..9.4.................... 9:.9 .................... O,5 .................. -....0.,.4........
Other Chemicals
144
10 100
6 2
26
-
3 6
...R..u.b...b. er_.............................................................. .2..I.. .................................. .8.9..7._ ................... O:.6...................... 0....3.............. -....0:.3... .......
Plastics
123
7651
47
i
14
-
3,3
. . . P o ~ e . , ~ , .............................................................
!9. ................................. 2.70. ................... .o..2.........~ ............ o.2. ............................ .o. .......
.....G..!a~ .................................................................
2.9. ............................. L ! 9..3. ................... O.7 ................... 0;9 .................. ,.....9.;.2...........
.... 9...th..er..Non-Meta!..s
"..................................... .S.2 ............................ .~..~7..7. ................... 2:..4. .................... ).;.! ..................
Iron & Steel i Non-Ferrous
18 8
.........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
953 155
~ ...................................
0,6 0 1
1,8 -
~.................................................................................
~ ............................................................................
-....3.,.3...
........
+ 1,2 - 0,1
i...Fab.n.'.ca~e..d..Met.a!s.................................. .55..I............................ !.6.78! ................. !0.,.4.................... ~:.I.................. -......4.,.3 ........ ....Ma.~.!n..e~ ................................................... 3.~. .......................... L4...~ .................... .8.,...9. .................... 2:2 .................. -....~,.~......... ....E.!e.~n.'.~LM.a.~.!ne~ ............................ 279 .......................... !~..~9. ................... 8,4 .................... 3,4 .................. -.....s.,.O. ........
M o t o r Vehicles Scientific Eguip.ment ...Othe.r...Ma.n..ufact.u~.
117
3731
04
i
02
-
0,2
61
1 883
1,2
i
20
+ 0,8
........................... 2.9...S. ............................ .S...L3.2 "................... .S...6.......i ............ 6..9 ................. +....l.,.a ........
It is interesting in Table 2 to examine the relative shares of the different sectors of production in the inner city relative to that for Johannesburg as a whole. This comparison allows a picture to emerge of those types of production activity which are either relatively 'over-represented' or 'under-represented' in the inner city. The analysis discloses that the innercity manufacturing economy is strongly over-represented in terms of three particular sectors, namely printing and publishing, clothing, and textiles. Undoubtedly, the inner-city economy is also over-represented in terms of a fourth sector, namely 'other manufacturing', as the industrial census data expands that category to include tobacco and footwear products; if these could be excluded from the total for Johannesburg as a
24
URBAN F O R U M 6:1, 1995
whole, the degree of inner-city over-representation would be considerably higher than 1,3 per cent. The sectors of production which are notably under-represented in the inner-city manufacturing economy are clearly the group of engineering activities, including fabricated metals, electrical machinery, and machinery, the food sector (notably the leading sector of manufacturing in Johannesburg as a whole in 1988), and (perhaps surprisingly) furniture production. As regards furniture manufacture, it should be noted, however, that a separate analysis conducted for the adjoining township of Jeppestown reveals a notable cluster of furniture establishments; the exclusion of Jeppestown from the study area of the inner city thus partly accounts for the surprising under-representation of the furniture sector in the overall Johannesburg inner-city manufacturing economy. Table 3. Size s t r u c t u r e o f formal m a n u f a c t u r i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s in t h e J o h a n n e s b u r g i n n e r - c i t y 1994.
iKIKKKXIKIKKXXXKIilKXXKK s i...M..e..d.!Um.........................i................--1---8.1................. . i...............2...2..9..............i ................1..7.38..5................i.................~:.0.................] i ka..rg..e Tota
i ~
26 791
i ~
33 100
12 159 39 486
! i
30 8 100
i i
Table 3 shows the size structure of manufacturing establishments in the inner city. This is differentiated in terms of small (less than 50 employees), medium (between 51 and 200 employees), and large (over 201 employees) establishments. It is evident that the inner-city economy is primarily a sphere of small and medium-sized manufacturing activities which together account for 96 per cent of production facilities in the Johannesburg inner city. Taken together with other findings on emerging black small production microenterprises in Johannesburg (Rogerson and Rogerson 1995, 1996), this result confirms the potential role played by the inner city for nurturing the emergence and expansion of small and medium-sized industrial enterprise. In terms of contribution to total manufacturing employment in the inner city, it is apparent from Table 3 that most employment is accounted for by medium-sized enterprises; together with small establishments, the overall share of inner-city manufacturing accounted for by SMEs is 69,2 per cent, a total that would rise further with the inclusion of the emerging black production microenterprise economy. A small number of large establishments, however, contribute a substantial weight - nearly one-third of the total employment - in the inner city. Table 4 presents a picture of the eleven most significant individual inner-city manufacturing enterprises. What is especially notable is the significance of a clutch of large printing and publishing concerns and clothing and textiles
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
25
producing establishments. Indeed, almost half the top eleven inner-city producing establishments are engaged in the business of printing and publishing.
T a b l e 4. T o p 11 c o m p a n i e s in the J o h a n n e s b u r g inner-city in 1994
....Food............................................P.r..e..m!..e.r.M!!J.!ng...Group.. ..........................................i...N.e.~.o_...~........................................................... i ........................................................ Textiles
Createx Knitwear ................................................................................................ i.....F..o...r..d...s b u..rg......................................................
..CZo!..h.!.ng .................................... gond.C!o.t.hj.n.~.
............................................................
Footwear United Fram Footwear .........................................................................................................................................................
LNew...D..~m.fon!.e!n
....................................
!.....v..,!.!.a..ge M.a!.n. ..................................................
..~n..nt.!.0_~......................................~e~o..~..~te............................................................i...p~m_[o..n.~e!.n................................................ . ...~n..~!ng. ..................................... The s..ta.r. ............................................................................. .... ..pn.'.nt.!ng ...................................... B.ee!d ....................................................................................
Print ng Pdnting i.
Paper
Me'a!
Sa.uer s.L.c~o ............................................. N.e.w..~mr.onte!.n. .....................................
Times Media D agonal St CBD i The Citizen Doomfontein ..........i ................................................ .......................................... ZZZZi i Brown, Davs and McCor.quada e Selbl
Notes: (1) Premier Milling was the largest employer in Newtown, however, during the course of 1994 Premier has been closing down sections of its production plants and progressively re-alloca~ng production to other mills with spare capacity; (2) The acSvit~es of Cementation Africa are listed as both iron and steel and fabricated metals.
Spatial Patterns In terms of the overall geographical pattern of industrial production within the inner city, Table 5 presents the overall findings of the analysis. As indexed by number of establishments the six major sub-areas of the inner city are the CBD (29,3 per cent), Doornfontein (12,0 per cent), Fordsburg (11,3 per cent), City and Suburban (8,6 per cent) and N e w Doornfontein (6,7 per cent); together these six sub-areas account for at least 76 per cent of formal production enterprises. It is likely that the proportion is somewhat larger as the majority of the 'not found' group (7,6 per cent of enterprises) are probably situated in the small minor streets of the CBD which were not captured in the computer sorting analysis. Using a measure of total employment, it is evident that the most significant employment nodes are in rank order: the CBD (23,0 per cent), Selby (12,0 per cent), Doornfontein (11,8 per cent), N e w Doornfontein (11,5 per cent), City and Suburban (8,3 per cent) and Fordsburg (8,2 per cent). Together these six zones of the inner city account for almost three-quarters at least of total manufacturing employment in the inner city. Once again, if the 'not found' category is allocated to the CBD, the share of total employment rises for the CBD to one-third and for the major six areas to over 85 per cent of total employment. Other areas of the inner city which are minor nodes for industrial e m p l o y m e n t are N e w t o w n (4,4 per cent), Village Main (3,4 per cent), N e w Centre (2,3 per cent), Marshalltown (2,0 per cent) and Braamfontein (0,7 per cent).
26
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
Table
5. Spatial pattems of manufacturing in the inner-city 1994. Establishments Number % of tota/
................................................................................
~ ..........................................................................................................
, M a ~ Sub-Nodes i CBD
~ ..........................................................................................................
..............................................................................
! ~ 0 ~ 6 i n
232
................................................................ ~
Selb.~. , New
.
~..~e!.n
......................
25,3
r .......................................
4 ........................................
9 089
i
23,0
......................... "[~:i~ ...........................4 6 ~ : i ........... ~............... "i:i:~i ..............
66 S3
Empk)~ment Number i % o f tota/
83 .........
67
4 732 ........................~ . ~
12,0 ......................... ~ ! ; 5
.
~.c!~..~....s..u~ .................................................... .~ ........................... ..8:.~........................... ?..z76............................. 8.3 ..... Minor Sub-Nodes ' .............................................................................. Ne~own ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
* ..............."55............................................................................................................................. 2,8 I 733 4,4 ............... ............................. ............. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~..N...e....w...C.e.n~....................................................................2 . ! ........................... ..2.:.7..................................9..!5 ............................. Z._3. ...M~!_t_.o~...
..B~mf~t.e!n.
....
................................................................ 2 6 ............................. ..3.,.3................................ . 8 . ~ .............................. 2 : 2 ...............
.............................................................. 25. ............................ 3,.2 ............................... .2..~.............................. 9.,.7...............
..R..ea.~_...UT..e..!q~r.~..ty................................................ 1.0............................. ~ .,3.. ............................... ~ ............................... !:.4............... ...N..~.r~
........................................................................ ~ .............................. 7...,~ ............................ 4 2 0 . . ! ............................ .i.0.,..8................
.............................................................................................. To~
7..?~........................... , LO0.. ..................................................................... 3 9 486
I...09.................
Note: The rest of the inner-cityincludes SalisburyClaims, Wemmer and Ferreirasdorp.
It is evident that sub-areas of the inner city exhibit strong clusters of particular types of manufacturing production. Table 6 presents a detailed picture of manufacturing activity in the various areas of the Johannesburg inner city. The key points that emerge from analysing this table are as follows: The CBD is a major focus of enterprises in the category of "other manufacturing'. The largest element in this category is accounted for by jewellery producing and diamond cutting establishments. These small types of industrial activity represent at least 29 per cent of all enterprises but only 17 per cent of industrial employment in the CBD. The two major sectors of industrial employment in the CBD are respectively clothing (34,5 per cent) and printing and publishing (20,5 per cent). Taken together, clothing, printing and jewellery account for almost three-quarters of industrial activity occurring in the CBD sub-zone. The Doornfontein and New Doornfontein sub-areas exhibit similar features in terms of their industrial structure. In both sub-areas the two sectors of clothing and printing emerge as the most prominent sectors of industrial activity. In Doornfontein these two categories of production account for almost half of total industrial employment; the proportionate share in New Doornfontein rises to 60 per cent of total employment.
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG i.........7 7 7 i !
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28
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995 9
The Fordsburg area is a distinct sub-zone of the inner-city manufacturing economy. In this area of inner-city Johannesburg the leading production activities cluster around clothing and textiles, which together account for 42 per cent of enterprises and 53 per cent of total employment. The third most notable production sector is in food manufacture, with a clustering of specialised food producers in Fordsburg. Overall, these findings on the significance of the clothing and textiles sector in Fordsburg must be viewed in relation to other research on the black production micro-enterprises in the Johannesburg CBD which showed a linkage between Fordsburg and the emergent black clothing producers (Rogerson and Rogerson 1996). 9 The Selby sub-area exhibits one of the most diversified mixes of industrial activity of any of the major sub-areas of the inner city. In common with the CBD, Doornfontein and New Doornfontein, printing and publishing again emerges as the leading activity as indexed both by numbers of enterprises and total employment. What is notable, however, is that the sector of fabricated metals occurs in Selby as the second most significant kind of production activity. 9 The final major sub-area of manufacturing in the inner city is City and Suburban. In this sub-area the clothing and textiles sector is most prominent and accounts for over half the area's total industrial employment. Apart from clothing, the other industrial activities in City and Suburban are spread across a range of different forms of industrial production. The following brief points are noteworthy concerning the minor sub-areas of industrial activity in the inner city. 9
Newtown is dominated by a cluster of food-producing establishments, led by Premier Milling (albeit in the throes of rundown); the food sector accounts for 70 per cent of Newtown's manufacturing employment. 9 New Centre is dominated by a small cluster of printing and publishing enterprises. 9 Village Main enjoys a diversified mix of particularly engineeringrelated activities with the employment structure weighted by one large leather/footwear producer (United Fram). 9 Marshalltown and Braamfontein contain a scatter of small industrial enterprise with printing enterprises once again the most numerically dominant. Finally, in terms of the spatial patterns of production activities within the inner city, Table 7 shows the proportional share of the sub-areas within
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESB URG
29
Table 7. Spatial distribution of major sectors of industry within inner-city Johannesburg 1994 Clothing & Textiles ....S e ! b y
Printing & Publishing
...................................................................... 3 J .......................... ! ~ , 5
.... F o r d s b u r g
Fabricated metals
........................ o 4 ................... 2 , 3 ................. 4 2 , 2 ............. ..................... 2 , 8 .............
.................................................... 0 , ~ ............................. 0 : 6 ....................... S , 0 .................. 0 , 8 ..................... 2 ; 9 ............
................................................................ 0 , 0 ............................. O , 4 ........................0 , 9 .................5..!,0..................... % O .............
....N e w C e n t r e Wemmer
Food
"........................................................... .1.4,.6 ............................. 3 , 5 ........................ 4 , 6 ................ 2 ! , 7
.... ~ r a a m f o n t e ! n ....N e ~ o ~
Other
........................................................ 2 , 9 ............................. 3 6 ....................... 0 : 1 .................. 0 , 0 ..................... 2 , 4 ............
............................................................. 0 , 0 ............................. 0 , 0 ....................... 0 , 0 ...................q , o ..................... 0 , 0 ............
....V ! ! ! a g e M a ) n ............................................ O,O............................. 4 3 ........................0 9 ...................0 , O .................... e : 6 ............ Sa!!sbury
cLaLms
............................................. o o ............................. o , . 2 ....................... o , 9
j ...........o , o
i ............... o ; 9 ...........
....9.!!..y...a....S..ub.u~a .n............................................. ~4.,4..............................5:..a..........................7:9...................q,.a......................78 ............. D~mfonte!n
.................................................... ~ : 3 , 5 .......................... ! ~ , ~ ..................... ~ 6 , 4 ............... 13.,..6. ..................... a , 5 ............
.... ..N.e..w..Do.o.m .(s
~.n"....................................... ~ . 8 . 7 .......................... !..4..,..0......................... .O..:O.................. ! . : 5 ..................... .9.:6 .............
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the inner city for each of the six major sectors of production. For the purposes of this analysis the sectors of clothing and textiles have been grouped together as one category of manufacturing. What emerges from this particular analysis is the following: The clothing and textiles sector of manufacturing shows a n u m b e r of areas of geographical concentration. The CBD area is the most important followed by N e w Doornfontein, Fordsburg, City and Suburban and Doornfontein. E m p l o y m e n t in the printing and publishing sector is spread across a n u m b e r of sub-areas of the inner city with particularly important concentrations occurring in the CBD, Doornfontein, N e w Doornfontein and Selby. The category of 'other manufacturing" which is constituted mainly by jewellery and d i a m o n d cutting establishments is o v e r w h e l m i n g l y focused in the CBD area with Doornfontein a secondary zone of concentration. N e w t o w n is the major focus of the inner city food sector followed by the specialist food sector of Fordsburg, and by Doornfontein. In terms of the fabricated metals sector of the inner city, the only notable sub-area of concentration occurs in Selby.
Concluding Remarks The overall structural and spatial patterns of contemporary industrial activities in the Johannesburg inner city have been described in detail. The
30
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
broad picture that emerges is that the inner city forms a distinct and specialised part of the manufacturing economy of Johannesburg as a whole. Primarily the inner-city manufacturing activity is a focus for small and medium-sized production enterprise rather than large manufacturing establishments. Major types of activity surround the sectors of printing and publishing and combined clothing and textiles production. Geographically, the CBD is the leading zone of manufacturing activity within the inner city. Specialist sub-areas of production appear to exist particularly with respect to jewellery and diamond cutting, printing, clothing, food production, and fabricated metals.
M A N U F A C T U R I N G CHANGE I N THE INNER CITY 1980-1994 The focus now turns to examine the theme of manufacturing change over time. More specifically, the objective in this section is to interrogate the shifting manufacturing economy of the Johannesburg inner city between 1980 and 1994. The analysis builds upon an examination of profiles of manufacturing in the inner city respectively for 1980, 1989, and 1994.
Total and Size Structure The industrial census data between 1979 and 1988 show a net loss of 7 294 jobs in the total picture of manufacturing in Johannesburg, from 169 159 jobs to 161 865 jobs. From DBSA (1994) data it appears that there may have occurred a more severe downturn since 1989 with a shake-out and loss of perhaps as much as sixty to seventy thousand jobs for Johannesburg as a whole. Attention turns now to examining the position of the inner city in relation to the city's declining manufacturing base. Table 8. Manufacturing change in the inner-city of Johannesburg, Number of establishments ) - : i ~ i ~ ............................ T.................. f ~ ~ ~
1980-1994:
....................................................... E m.p.!oym e n t .....................................................
Low
.................. )............... ~ ~ 6 ~ i
)
Medium
............... )............. ~ ~ : ~
i
H~Qh
............. 7 .............. ~ , ~ ~
i ............... i
Table 8 shows the changes in numbers of enterprises and estimated total manufacturing employment in the inner city of Johannesburg for 1980, 1989 and 1994. It is evident that the inner-city area has been responsible for a considerable share of the loss of manufacturing activity occurring in Johannesburg between 1980 and 1994. Overall, it is estimated that between 1980 and 1994 the inner-city manufacturing economy has shed at least sixteen thousand jobs and perhaps as much as twenty thousand industrial
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
31
jobs. The decline of the inner-city manufacturing sector clearly set in at a m u c h earlier period than that for Johannesburg as a whole. A decline of between six and nine thousand jobs occurred in the period 1980-89 w h e n the inner city was responsible for the entire d o w n t u r n recorded in the manufacturing sector of Johannesburg as a whole. The period 1989-1994 witnessed a more rapid erosion of the inner-city manufacturing economy with a loss of a further ten to twelve thousand manufacturing jobs. Besides the demise of manufacturing employment, equally disturbing is the net loss in the n u m b e r of manufacturing enterprises recorded in the inner city. Between 1980 and 1989 a net loss was shown of over 230 establishments with a further loss of 225 establishments between 1989 and 1994. Overall, Table 8 suggests that the formal inner-city manufacturing economy of Johannesburg is not in a particularly healthy condition, having been in a state of gradual decline since at least 1980 and more rapid deterioration since 1989. Table g. The changing size composition of manufacturing in the Johannesburg innercity, 1980-1994. ...............................................................................
E.a'...a.b!!~h.me.nts.
Number
.....................................................
%
Em~!o~me.n.t.
.............................
Number
Small
......................................................................................................................................................................................
% ~.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................................................................ 1980 1...0.1.7.................................................................................................................. 81 6 16 206 28.,.2 ............... ...1.9.a.9. ..........................................................
1994
7.7.4 . ............................
.7.9.:.2.. ..............................
584
73,8
L3.. .0...3.6. ..............................
9 942
25:..8. ...............
25,2
............................................................................ 1980 ! 7 9 ..................................................................... 14 4 1..7. 3.2.6"............................... 3 0 , ! "............... .... 1.9..a.9 ............................................................
_!994
..........................................................
2...0..9. .............................
.2..0.:8 .............................
.20..2...3..!. ...............................
~9.,q
...............
!.8_! .............................
.2.2.:..9. ............................
17385
:~,,o
..............
.............................
....La..r.g...e. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................. 1980 51. .......................................................................................................................................... 4 0 24 013 41,7 ....1.9.89. .............................................................. 3.3................................. .3.:.2................................ I...7..2..58"............................... 3.4:..2................ .... !.g.94. ...............................................................
26
...............................
3,3
..............................
!..?...L5.9. ...............................
.~,0.:,8. ...............
Table 9 presents the changing size structure of establishments in the inner city. It is evident that there has been a decline in the number of enterprises and total e m p l o y m e n t across all size categories with the notable exception of the group of medium-sized establishments. Between 1980 and 1994 there was recorded a net loss of 433 small enterprises or almost 42 per cent of the total of small industrial enterprises in 1980. As these industrial enterprises are almost certainly white-owned formal small enterprises, this finding suggests the reduced capacity of the inner-city incubator function with respect to this kind of enterprise. In terms of larger establishments, the pattern that emerges is of a net erosion of inner-city firms with an absolute decline in the n u m b e r of enterprises and total e m p l o y m e n t by a factor of roughly 50 per cent. A brighter picture appears in terms of analysing the
32
URBAN FORUM 6:1, t995
situation of medium-sized establishments in the inner city. For this sizecategory of establishment the inner city has remained relatively stable in absolute terms between 1980 and I994. But, given the net loss of both small and large establishments in the overall manufacturing profile, between 1980 and 1994 the net share of medium-sized establishments in relative terms has strengthened from a 30,1 per cent share of employment in 1980 to 44,0 per cent share by 1994.
Sectoral Change 1980-1994 Attention now shifts to examine change in the inner-city manufacturing economy in terms of different sectoral patterns of production. This analysis is presented in relation to two separate time periods 1989-1994 and 19801989. The statistical findings related to the discussion below are presented on Tables 10-13. Tables 10 and 11 deal with the most recent period 1989-94; Tables 12 and 13 focus on the period 1980-89.
1989-1994 Table 10 presents the structure of the inner-city manufacturing economy in 1989. It is evident that, with minor variations, the structural pattern of industry is only marginally different from that recorded for 1994. Ranked in terms of employment size the six leading sectors again are clothing, printing and publishing, food, textiles, 'other manufacturing', and fabricated metals. More significant is the information in Table 11 which presents the net shifts occurring between 1989-1994 in terms of both numbers of establishments and total employment change among the industrial sectors. Several points emerge from examining Table 11. It is evident that the downturn in the inner manufacturing economy is widely spread throughout various sectors of production. Nevertheless, in terms of numbers of establishments, the largest reductions were recorded in the total of clothing, printing, 'other manufacturing', and food producing plants; together these four sectors of production accounted for almost two-thirds of the net loss of total production establishments in the period 1989-94. More revealing, perhaps, is data concerning net employment shifts (Table 11). Once again, there are only a few isolated cases of sectoral growth occurring in the period 1989-94; these are mainly accounted for by one single enterprise affecting the total employment in a relatively small employment category. The overwhelming picture again is one of decline throughout the inner-city industrial economy. It is striking that the greatest absolute employment losses have occurred in rank order among the four sectors of clothing, food, printing, and 'other manufacturing' (most importantly, jewellery and diamond cutting). Together, these four sectors were responsible for a net loss of over 7 400 jobs or 67 per cent of the net employment reduction in the inner-city manufacturing economy between 1989 and 1994.
DECLINING
OF
MANUFACTURING
IN
JOHANNESBURG
33
Table 10. The structure of the inner-city manufacturing economy 1989. ....!~a~.qq..~at..~gg....,X .................................................................................. E ~ a ~ ( ~ q ~
Food
...................E ~ o ~ m ~
66
....B.s165
...........................................................................................................................
...........
3 923
.I................................................ ~ s ..................
. . . . T o ~ ................................................................................................................................ .1............................................... . ~ .................. Textiles
56
3 875
....C.!.ot.h..!n~......................................................................................................................... 1.79. .................... :............... 1.a..26..8. .................. ...Le..athe.r ...............................................................................................................................
Footwear
2
.... W~anqCo~ ............................................................................................................ .... Fum!ture ............................................................................................................................ i Paper
...................................................................................................................................
i Pr!nt!ng
Cherr~!s
!7 ........................................... 370 .................. 3.4.. ....................................... L653 .................. !7Z .................................... !0B2S
8
..........................................................................................................
Petroleum Petroleum and Coal Rubber
..................
735
.1.2 ........................................... .4.69 ..................
..........................................................................................................................
Industrial Chemicals .... Other
2 6 ....................................... ! . . ~
28 ....................................... L3~
0 1
.......................................................................................................
..................
167
6
..................
0 70 183
i
....P.!.as.t!.~............................................................................................................................... !..3............................................. 727.................i Potte~ G!ass
2
........................................................................................................................................
.... o.t.~e.r.N...o.n-M e..t.a!s ..........................................................................................................
Iron and Steel
i .................
..8............................................. .2...6...2...................
4
..N..o...n.-..F.e .,Z..o.u..s.........................................................................................................................
58
7 .......................................... 2~
193
.1............................................. !..2.5 .................
.... F..~b.rkc.a.t.e..d...M.-e---ta.!.~ .....................................................................................................
7.9.. ....................................... ..2..~..~ ..................
[email protected]. .........................................................................................................................
~. ...................................... .1....!5.1. ..................
.
Electrical Machine r1
48
2 069
..T.,:an..s~..,3..E..qu!p.m...en.t ................................................................................................... .1................................................ 55 ................. i .... s..~ent!r.,.c...E...q~! .p.m.e.ot. ................................................................................................ ~ ........................................ L0...5.2. ................. j
Other Manufacturing Total .............................................................................................................................................................................
147 1 016
3 645 50 525 ; ..................................................
i i
In relative terms, the most alarming d o w n t u r n is s h o w n by the food sector which shed nearly one-third of establishments and almost 44 per cent of formal e m p l o y m e n t during the period 1989-94. Another significant relative demise was recorded in the sphere of jewellery and d i a m o n d cutting ('other manufacturing') which felt by one-third of establishments and 34 per cent of e m p l o y m e n t in the period 1989-94. Although the clothing sector recorded the second largest absolute loss in numbers of enterprises (-36) and the largest loss in total employment levels (-3 056), in relative terms the d o w n t u r n in clothing was less severe than that for either food or the sector of jewellery p r o d u c t i o n / d i a m o n d cutting. In clothing between 1989 and 1994 a net loss of 21 per cent of establishments and 25 per cent of sectoral e m p l o y m e n t was recorded. Lastly, the printing and publishing sector also exhibited a less severe d o w n t u r n than that recorded for food or 'other manufacturing'; in printing and publishing the relative loss was 23 per cent of establishments (-40) and 16 per cent of e m p l o y m e n t (-1 715).
34 Table
U R B A N FORUM 6:1, 1995 11.
Net shifts
in the
inner-city
manufacturing
economy
1989-1994.
i Food
- 20
L.B..e.ve..m..~.e..s. ................................................................................................................
..+......~ .................. i ................. - ........ ..2.O. ................
Tobacco ":i;ex;r
-1 715
0
i
.-
................................................................................................... l ................. -""2" ................. i................ -
:: 5i5+S5!a
:ig::::i
65.
.
754
...............
Footwear ............................................................................................................................................. Wood and Cork
- 11 942 + 1 + 98 - " ' " 7 ................................... + .......... 6 .................
i ' " # u m ' ~ ' ~ ' u r e ....................................................................................................................
:7"
i . . . ~ r . . ! ~ ! ! n . ~ ..................................................................................................................... ...!.n.d..u.~aLCh.e~.~Js .................................................................
- . . . . ~ . ................................... - . ~ . Z ! . P . ................. : 3. ........................... - ......... ~ .................
Leather
Other Chemicals Petroleum
-
.................................. : ' ~ 3 ~ ;
7 0
-
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
.....Pet..ro!eu.m.and..C
Rubber Plastics 9
.o.a! ......................................................................... o .............................................. 1 -
-
............................................................................................ ......................................... i .........................................................
Glass ............................................................................................................................................. Other Non-Metals
....................................
315 0
.. . . . . . . . . . ~ -
.................
i ..................................................
~
-
1 i 0 ' + ::::::::::Z:::CZ::::::I:IIZ:::I + 1 ::1
................
46
190 25
77 + " ' : i 8 5 .................
~:::i:m..~::~n:.d~.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 2:::::::::::::::::: ============================================= Non-Ferrous 1 125 Fabricated Metals - 15 240 .......................................................................................................................... 4- ................................................................................................ .... ..M..a.~..n..e...rx .................................................................................................................
:.....S. ................................... :.......?.~. ................. .... ~!e.~L.M...a.| .......................................................................................... :...I..o ................................... :......7.36. ................. i Motor Vehicles i 3 i 140 i !:....................................................................................................................... Trans.~...rt E . q . u i p m e n t 1 i~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+. . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . .3. . . . . . . . . . . . . ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+ .................. ;." i Scientific E.quip.ment i - 12 257 i i Other Manufacturing i - 37 i 921 i
In conclusion, these results suggest that during the period 1989-94 the two sectors that experienced the most severe difficulties in the inner city of Johannesburg were the food and the 'other manufacturing' sector, spearheaded by jewellery activities and diamond cutting establishments. The inner city was %leeding' significant numbers of establishments and jobs from both these two industrial sectors during this period. The losses occurring in clothing and printing should be interpreted perhaps in light of other findings which suggest that these two sectors are at the forefront of the 'informalisation' of production (see Rogerson and Rogerson 1996). Detailed sectoral research would be necessary to explore the validity of this possible explanation.
1980-1989 Table 12 records the estimated structure of the Johannesburg inner-city economy in 1980, and Table 13 presents the respective net shifts for numbers
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
35
of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d total e m p l o y m e n t b y sector of p r o d u c t i o n in the p e r i o d 1980-89. It m u s t be c a u t i o n e d that given certain difficulties e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p r e p a r i n g the 1980 inner-city listing of establishments, the d e g r e e of reliability a n d accuracy of these detailed data is p e r h a p s less than that for 1989 a n d 1994 for w h i c h l a b o r i o u s cross-checks w e r e u n d e r t a k e n . That said, the d a t a in Table 12 a p p e a r to h a v e no major discrepancies as c o m p a r e d to the sectoral b r e a k d o w n of m a n u f a c t u r i n g g i v e n for the J o h a n n e s b u r g magisterial district in the 1979 industrial census. Accordingly, in this analysis the results in Table 13 can certainly b e taken as indicative of the b r o a d m a j o r trends s h a p i n g the c h a n g i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g e c o n o m y of the inner city b e t w e e n 1980 a n d 1989. Table 12. T h e s t r u c t u r e o f the inner-city manufactunng economy 1980. ....
...........................................................................
...........
........................
............
" ~ 6 ~ ......................................................................................................... ~.........................~ ..................................... ~"si~ ................ ...Bevera0..es.............................................................................................. ~.............................4.......................................... . ~ ................. .....T.oba~ ................................................................................................................................ 0.................................................. .9.................. ...T.e~!.~s............................................................................................................................. sZ..................................... 2..~8 ................. ....c.!.gm~,~"........................................................................................................................ 2~2.................................... ..!4.?~ .................. ...........................................................................................................................
+ .....................................................................................................
...L.e.ath.er ..................................................................................................... 30 1 060 Footwear ........................................................................... 3 :185.................i ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... Wood and Cork 24 "69~J.................i Furniture 43 1 528 i i ~ a p e r ................................................................................................................................... .1.5........................................... 81_5 .................. i ~ r ! " t ! " ~ .......................................................................................................................... ! ~ .................................... ~Q ~ ! a .................. i !n~u~a!.~em!~!s ..................................................................................................... 9 ........................................... ~ ..................
i.....O!.h..e.rc .h..e~!.~Ls"......................................................................................................... 5..9...................................... ~.~).~.................. Petroleum
0
0
i
' i~'e~r6ieum an~i 5 o a i ......................................................................... ; ............................ ~ ............................................. ~ .................. i ........................................................................................................................................................ ~ ............................................. 6 ; , ................. .....R.u..b.b..er.......................................................................................................................................................
i
Plastics Potte~ ....~ i a s s ......................................................................................................... ' 6 i 6 e r ~ o n : ~ e t a i s ..............................................................................
i
19
i
1
........................ ~ 1 .................. 13 i
" ......................... T 3 .......................................... ~i:/:i ................. i ~............................ ~ .........................................~ii~i ................. i
.~;~;;;~;;;;~;;;;;;~;;;;;~;~;;~;;;;;~;;~;;~;;;~;;~;~;~;;;;~````*;;;;;;~;~;~;;;;~;~;~IrOn and Steel :'.8;;;;;i::::;;;;;;::ii:::;;;;;;::i:;iiii;;;;;;;~::I.'~;;;;; Non-Ferrous
Fabricated Metals Machinery
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Electncal Machine r / Motor Vehicles ....s ~ e n ! ! r , c
E q u ! p m e n ~ ................................................................................................
Other Manufacturing
2
63
106
3 680
59 43 30
1 283 2 425 876
3 5 ............................................ ~
156
3 394
"'%'t'~ ............................................................................................................................... ~ " ~ ' ~ .................. " ................. ~ ' ~
t
i
................. i
i ................. !
As n o t e d a b o v e , the p e r i o d 1980-89 exhibits a relatively stable p h a s e as regards the overall inner-city m a n u f a c t u r i n g economy, albeit w i t h a net loss of s e v e n t h o u s a n d jobs. The leading sectors of p r o d u c t i o n in 1980, as r a n k e d b y total e m p l o y m e n t n u m b e r s , are clothing, printing, food, fabricated
36
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
metals, 'other manufacturing', and textiles (Table 12). As regards change between 1980-89, Table 13 reveals that in terms of numbers of establishments, there was a small number of sectors in which growth was recorded; for the majority of sectors, however, a small decline was recorded in the numbers of establishments with the greatest losses in clothing (-62), other chemicals (-31), fabricated metals (-27), printing (-21) and food (-18). Table
13.
N e t s h i f t s in t h e i n n e r - c i t y m a n u f a c t u n n g
economy
i Industnal Cate g..o~
1980-1989.
No. Estabs
No. Emp..IoE
i
!III I KZZZ Z ZZIIIZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z L ilIiKZZZiZZ]DIII KZZI i Beve...r~. es
- 3
ilII
.a.
ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ:
-
459
i
..................... ................................................................................................ ................................... ..*......... ...90................
Textiles
- 1
- 1 289
.c!~!~Ln~..................................................................................................................... "~?...................................."~6~s .............. ......Le.aJher. ......................................................................................................................... -....~ .................................... ..+......_.....,~.................
Footwear W o o d and C o r k
- 1
+
550
-
-
Furniture
- 9
329 125
7
+
i P a p e r . .................................................................................................................. - . . . 3 ................................... : ....... . ~
..............
! . . P r j . ~ ! ! . , ~ . ....................................................................................................................... - ~ .................................... + . . . . . . . ~ 7 ............... .j.~u.st.n.'.a..Lch.e~!s .......................................................................................... :.....1...................................... - .......... . 9 3 ..............
Other Chemicals ....i~ei~e66
- 31
............................................................................................... =
-
3 176
o
o
.......................................................................................................................................................................................... Petroleum and Coal - I
+ ......... ~I~...............
................................................................................................................................................................................... 4+ ......... /i~ .... ..R..u..b...b...e.r ......................................................................................................................... .+....~.................................... ~ .............. .: ....?.!.a...s..t~ ......................................................................................................................... -...~.................................................................... ......Pg...U..e~.......................................................................................................................... ..+.....~ .................................... + ......... ~
- 6 e..._...!..a...J...... s.................................................................................. + Z 2 Z. Z I . .....03.h.er..N . ........o...n...-..M ..... ................................................................. . . .C Z Z . Z Z. Iron
and Steel
- 4
-
.............. j
78
................ ..............-............................... ............
-
22
i
.....N.o..n-F.e~9.US. ............................................................................................................... -....I...................................... ..+. ......... 6 2 ..............:
Fabricated Metals ...Ma~9..e..~
-27
- 1 017
.................................................................................................................. -..I..6... ................................... = ........ !32 ..............
......EJ..e~.n.~LMa~h)
ne ~ .......................................................................................... +5. ................................... -........3.~...............
.................................................................................................................................................. Motor Vehicles
...I~n..s.~..Equ!
-
6 ..................................................................... +
.pm.~..n~ ....................................................................................... -.2 .................................... = .......... .88 ...............
I + 108 ....S~en!!.r.,.c..~..qu!pme.n~ ............................................................................................ - ........................................................................... ....ot.~er.M.~.n..uf~c..tu.r!".~. ....................................................................................... -...9...................................... .+......2..s..!...............
Once again, the data on net employment shifts by sector between 1980-89 are revealing. It is notable that between 1980 and 1989 eleven sectors of industry show minor gains in total employmen_~ in the inner city; for example, small gains were recorded variously in this period for the leather, footwear, printing and publishing, and 'other manufacturing' sectors. In view of the declines recorded during the period 1989-94 for both printing and - especially - the jewellery/diamond cutting sector ('other manufacturing'), these findings suggest that the late 1980s was a critical
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
37
period in the history of these two sectors of inner-city manufacturing, marking a watershed between a growth phase and the onset of a downturn. It is interesting to examine those sectors which were already exhibiting signals of decline in the 1980s. Between 1980 and 1989 the largest absolute losses of e m p l o y m e n t were seen in the following sectors in rank order: other chemicals (-3 176), clothing (-2 675), food (-1 956), textiles (-1 289), and fabricated metals (-1 017). The case of 'other chemicals' can be explained by the loss of one major establishment formerly based in the inner city. Of greater significance is the rate of decline shown in the remaining four sectors of major loss. In relative terms, the most precipitate fall was recorded in the textiles sector which shed over 50 per cent of inner-city employment between 1980 and 1989; this was occurring at a time w h e n the sector was experiencing intensified competition and was under pressure from the labour restrictions of the Environment Planning Act. Although under similar pressures from government legislation, the labour-intensive clothing sector experienced a less dramatic demise, losing 18 per cent of total e m p l o y m e n t in the years 1980-89. The loss of over 33 per cent of total e m p l o y m e n t in the food sector alongside a decline of over 20 per cent of establishments suggests that the erosion of the food sector from the innercity manufacturing base of Johannesburg began in the early 1980s and, as shown above for 1989-94, contir,ues apace. Finally, and also of note, is the sharp fall between 1980 and 1989 shown by the inner-city fabricated metals sector which in relative shed terms one-quarter of establishments and 28 per cent of total employment. Again, this is suggestive of the onset of sectoral decline during the early 1980s rather than a more recent period.
Components of Change In terms of interpreting the changing manufacturing economy of the inner city, cognissance must be taken of the relative importance of
9 In situ establishment expansion or decline 9 9 9
Births of n e w enterprise Closures or deaths of existing enterprise Relocations of production
In this analysis it was not possible accurately to track patterns of in situ establishment expansion or decline in the inner city. None the less, some useful data were generated concerning births, deaths and relocations. Before presenting these findings, however, it must be acknowledged that the data base did not allow consideration of the impact of mergers, take-overs and associated name changes of enterprises. As the problem of name changes is particularly severe for the 1980-89 period, the analysis in this section is confined to examining the more important and more recent period of 198994.
38
U R B A N F O R U M 6:1, 1995
T a b l e 14. C o m p o n e n t s of c h a n g e in i n n e r - c i t y m a n u f a c t u r i n g , 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 4 : b i r t h s a n d d e a t h s of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .
.... ~ 6 6 ~ i ....................................................................... ........................................................................................
Beverages
~............... ~ i i ............... ; ................ / ~ ................. " ................ : ~ ' ~ - ............... i.{
; .......................................................................................................................
~
Tobacco
1 1
1 1
0 0
i 9
Textiles Clothin~
21 32
20 59
+ 1 - 27
i i
...................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 12 : 6 .................i ........................................................................... , .....................0..iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.i . . .L, Fe.a. ,t{h~ .e~ra r ............................................................... ........................................................................................ ;...................................................................................................... 0 0 Wood and Cork 1 Furniture 6 I........................................................................................................................... i.....p...ap.er. ......................................................................................... i...ErL,..t.!..,..~ ................................................................................
i Industrial C h e m i c a l s i O t h e r C h e m cals L.p..e.tm!.e..u.m Petroleum
.3 ................................. ~ . ~ ................................
2 6
............................................................. and
7 - 6 ..................1...1...................................... -_5. ..................
Coa~
o ...................................................... 1
.4. ..................................
-...! ...................
..4Z .................................
: . . 2 . 9 . .................
5 11
- 3 - 5
o
o
0 ................ ~ ........................................... -~- 1
................................................................................................................................................... 1 1..................t ...................... Rubber . . . 0. .................. . .................................................................................................................................................. Plastics 7 :~ ................i.......................O "
II ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ)ZZZZZZ!ZZZZZZZZZZI
.... G..!.a.ss ..........................................................................................
Other Non Metals ........................................................................................
.3...................................
: .................. ~2 ..................................
.2... ..................................
.+....! ...................
1 ................................... ~.
:+. . . ~1 ..................
...!.~.a..nd....S.tee! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..No..n=Fe..rrou.s....M..etaLs.
.........................................................
Fabricated M e t a l s . M.,a~Lnerx
............................................................................
Electrical M a c h i n e r/.
9. ..................................
.1..........................................
! ...................
13
26
- 13
~.2. ...............................
LS. ...................................
=..3 ..................
6
3
+ 3
................................................................................................... ~ .............. - . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ................. .... M..o..t..o.r...V..e.h..,.d....e..s.. ...........................................................................................................................................................................
.T~.n...s.~..E.,q..u..!P.m.e...n.. .... S~.e.n.!!r,.c....E..q..u.!pm.e...n.t
t . ...................................................... ........................................................
Other Manufacturin~
:
,0. .................................. .9. ....................................... 9. .................. 3. ................................. 10 ................................... -..7 ..................
23
55
- 32
Table 14 presents the patterns of births and deaths of establishments in each industrial sector and Table 15 the size distribution of the births and deaths of establishments. Overall, the excess of deaths over births was in the region of 155, and in net e m p l o y m e n t terms the estimated balance was an excess loss of almost five thousand inner-city jobs. What this finding suggests is that at least 45-50 per cent of the overall d o w n t u r n in the inner-city manufacturing e c o n o m y can be explained in terms of the higher death rate T a b l e 15. C o m p o n e n t s o f c h a n g e establishments.
in i n n e r - c i t y m a n u f a c t u r i n g ,
Cate~ Small .... M.e...d!u_.m... .................................................................................... .... L . a r ~ e .............................................................................................
1989-1994:
Births
Deaths
137
273
4 1 . ........................................................ 4 . .......................................................
~
s i z e of
...........................
.1.! ............................
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
39
relative to the low birth rate of new establishments. In turn, this suggests that the Johannesburg inner city is losing its competitive advantage as a locational environment for manufacturing activity. From Table 14 it is evident that the death rate for particular sectors of production is especially high; most striking of all is the relatively high death rate as compared to low birth rate for the jewellery/diamond cutting sector, a finding which again points to the problems experienced by this production sector in the inner city of Johannesburg. The data in Table 15 concerning size of establishment once more point to the weakened capacity of the inner city as a locational environment for particularly small-scale industrial enterprise; it is clear that while the downturn in establishment numbers crosses all the three size ranges, it is small enterprises that show the greatest excess of deaths over new births (126 establishments) in the period 1989-94. Finally, as regards relocations of production, it must be acknowledged that the data base is made problematic by large enterprises re-allocating functions between different plants of a diversified corporate group. Without detailed interviews this makes it difficult to determine that sometimes a factory relocation has taken place as opposed to a changing of functions within the enterprise structure as a whole. With this caveat stated, the findings of the study disclose that between 1989 and 1994 a total of 97 to 100 relocations of establishment occurred. In terms of the total number of establishments this result suggests that between 1989 and 1994 roughly 10 per cent of inner-city factory establishments experienced a plant relocation. In sectoral terms, by far the largest number of relocations was recorded for the sector of 'other manufacturing" in which 20 moves were noted. Other notably mobile sectors of inner-city manufacturing were printing and publishing (14 moves), clothing (9), food (7), and textiles (6); together the most mobile five sectors of production accounted for 56 per cent of recorded relocations. A further 20 per cent of establishment moves were explained by broadly engineering-related activities (fabricated metals, electrical machinery, machinery, motor vehicles and parts). The spatial patterns of movement reveal that the major trend is for shortdistance relocation of establishments to other locations either within the inner city or within the Johannesburg metropolitan area. Of the total number of recorded relocations, 38 were short-distance shifts of establishments to new locations within the inner city and 45 were to other areas of metropolitan Johannesburg. Only 15 relocations occurred outside Johannesburg, of this group 12 were again short-distance moves to locations elsewhere in the Witwatersrand, including Florida, Kya Sand, Alrode, Isando or Midrand. Movement beyond the Witwatersrand was recorded for only two inner-city enterprises. Overall, the total loss of industrial employment which is accounted for by relocations from the inner city to other parts of South Africa is approximately 4 800-5 100 jobs, the bulk of which were re-allocated to other parts of Metropolitan Johannesburg or
40
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
adjacent industrial areas on the East or West Rand. Direct factory relocation away from the inner city has thus been a key factor in accounting for innercity employment decline with a loss of approximately 40-43 per cent of the inner-city industrial employment base. An analysis of the size structure of establishments relocated from the inner city between 1989 and 1994 discloses that the largest number of establishment moves fell into the bracket of small-size plants with less than 50 employees; medium-sized plants (51-200 employees) accounted for an additional 22 moves, and largesized plants (over 200 workers) recorded only 4 moves. Based on the findings of research conducted in the early 1970s (Rogerson 1975a, 1975b), it would be hypothesised that most of this pattern of short-distance relocation away from the Johannesburg inner city is accounted for by growing industrial enterprises which require additional space to accommodate their expansion.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The key findings of this detailed research on the inner-city manufacturing economy of Johannesburg may be summarised as follows: 9
9
The inner city currently contains nearly eight hundred industrial establishments representing a total of roughly forty thousand manufacturing jobs. The broad picture that emerges is that the inner city forms a distinct and specialised part of the manufacturing economy of Johannesburg as a whole. Primarily the inner-city manufacturing activity is a focus for small- and medium-sized production enterprise rather than large manufacturing establishments. Almost two-thirds of industrial employment is concentrated in the six sectors of production which in descending rank order of importance are clothing, printing and publishing, textiles, 'other manufacturing', food, and fabricated metals. It is evident that the inner-city manufacturing economy is relatively narrowly focused upon these six leading sectors of production with clothing and texiles manufacture and printing and publishing the two most dominant sets of activities. Geographically, the CBD is the leading zone of manufacturing activity within the inner city. Specialist districts in terms of production appear to occur notably with respect to jewellery and diamond cutting, printing, clothing, food production, and fabricated metals. It was shown that the inner-city area has been responsible for a notable share of the overall loss of manufacturing activity occurring in Johannesburg between 1980 and 1994. It was estimated that between 1980 and 1994 the inner-city manufacturing economy shed
DECLINING OF MANUFACTURING IN JOHANNESBURG
41
between sixteen and twenty thousand industrial jobs. The decline of the inner-city manufacturing sector set in at a much earlier period than that for Johannesburg as a whole. A loss of between six and nine thousand jobs occurred in the period 1980-89 when the inner city was responsible for the entire downturn recorded in the manufacturing sector of Johannesburg as a whole. The period 198994 showed a more worrying pace of demise of the inner-city manufacturing economy with a reduction of another ten to twelve thousand jobs. Between 1980 and 1994 there was a loss of industrial activity across nearly all production sectors suggesting that the inner city is losing its competitive advantage as a locational environment for manufacturing. The major absolute losses of employment were recorded in rank order among the four sectors of clothing, food, printing, and 'other manufacturing' (most importantly, jewellery and diamond cutting). In relative terms some significant points emerged from the analysis. First, the period 1980-89 saw a major decline in the textiles sector and the onset of a continuing decline in the inner-city food and fabricated metals production activities. Second, the late 1980s through to 1994 were marked by the major relative decline in the sector of 'other manufacturing', led by jewellery production and diamond cutting, and the continued haemorrhaging of the food sector. The analysis of the components of inner-city manufacturing change disclosed that 45-50 per cent of the overall downturn can be explained in terms of the relatively high death rates of existing establishments as compared to the correspondingly low birth rate of new inner-city enterprise. A further 40 per cent of change is seemingly accounted for by short-distance plant relocations from the inner city, either to other parts of Johannesburg or adjacent industrial areas of the Witwatersrand. The findings of this research point to the validity of applying a component of change analysis to unpacking the changing landscape of manufacturing in the South African city. What is urgently required is to move beyond the findings of this preliminary analysis and extend the understanding of the shifting manufacturing base of the inner city. In the case of Johannesburg, a methodology and interpretative framework may be grounded in the rich vein of British research on the decline of the inner cities and on patterns of intra-urban manufacturing change (see, for example, Keeble 1978; Lloyd and Mason 1978; Fothergill et al. 1986).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research findings reported here were part of a broader study undertaken on the inner city for the Johannesburg Administration. Thanks
42
URBAN FORUM 6:1, 1995
are due to Herman Pienaar in the Urban Strategies Division, Greater Johannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council, for commissioning and commenting on this research. All opinions expressed here and shortcomings in the paper are the responsibility of the authors.
REFERENCES AND SOURCES Bull, P.J. 1978. The spatial components of intra-urban manufacturing change: Suburbanization in Clydeside 1958-68. Transactions, Institute of British Geographers 3 (New Series), 91-100. Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) 1994. South Africa's Nine Provinces: A Human Development Profile. DBSA, Halfway House. Dennis, R. 1978. The decline of manufacturing employment in Greater London: 1966-74. Urban Studies 15, 63-73. Fothergill, S., Gudgin, G., Kitson, M. and Monk, S. 1986. The Deindustrialisation of the City, in R. Martin and B. Rowthorn (eds), The Geography of De-industrialisation. Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp.214-37. Keeble, D. 1978. Industrial decline in the inner city and conurbation. Transactions, Institute of British Geographers, 3 (New Series), 101-14. Lloyd, P.E. and Mason, C.M. 1978. Manufacturing industry in the inner city: A case study of Greater Manchester. Transactions, Institute of British Geographers 3 (New Series), 66-90. Mason, C.M., 1980. Industrial decline in Greater Manchester 1966-1975: A component of change analysis. Urban Studies 17, 173-84. Massey, D. and Meegan, R. 1978. Industrial restructuring versus the cities. Urban Studies 15, 273-88. Rogerson, C.M. 1975a. Some aspects of industrial movement from Johannesburg 1960-1972. South African GeographicalJournal 57, 3-16. 1975b. Industrial movement in an industrializing economy. South African Geographical Journal 57, 88-103. 1992. Business organizations, industrial restructuring and flexible production: Agendas for a new industrial geography, in C.M. Rogerson and J.J. McCarthy (eds), Geography in a Changing South Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town, pp.246-64. 1995. The Central Witwatersrand: A Metropolitan Region in Distress? Unpublished Report submitted to the Centre for Enterprise and Development, Johannesburg. 1996. The metropolis as incubator: Small enterprise development in the Central Witwatersrand. GeoJournal (in press). RR Marketing 1993. Blue Print of Industry: Industrial Guide to Johannesburg and West Rand (3 edn). Map Studio and RR Marketing, Johannesburg. Scott, A.J. 1982. Locational patterns and dynamics of industrial activity in the urban metropolis. Urban Studies 19, 111-42. University of South Africa, Bureau of Market Research 1980, 1989 1994: Industrial Register, unpublished data base.
