Environ Monit Assess (2012) 184:1265–1273 DOI 10.1007/s10661-011-2038-2

Wind energy and Turkey Aynur Aydin Coskun · Yavuz Özhan Türker

Received: 15 October 2010 / Accepted: 16 March 2011 / Published online: 9 April 2011 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract The global energy requirement for sustaining economic activities, meeting social needs and social development is increasing daily. Environmentally friendly, renewable energy resources are an alternative to the primary non-renewable energy resources, which devastate ecosystems in order to meet increasing demand. Among renewable energy sources such as hydropower, biopower, geothermal power and solar power, wind power offers distinct advantages to Turkey. There is an increasing tendency toward wind globally and the European Union adjusted its legal regulations in this regard. As a potential EU Member state, Turkey is going through a similar process. The number of institutional and legal regulations concerning wind power has increased in recent years; technical infrastructure studies were completed, and some important steps were taken in this regard. This study examines the way in which Turkey has developed support for wind power, presents a SWOT analysis of the wind power sector in Turkey and a projection was made for the concrete success expected to be accomplished in the future.

A. A. Coskun · Y. Ö. Türker (B) Department of Forest Law, Faculty of Foresetry, Istanbul University, 34473 Bahcekoy, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords Wind energy · Turkey legislation · EIA legislation · Renewable resources

Introduction Global and national energy demand, which is regarded as the cornerstone of economic development, is gradually increasing in line with social demands. Meeting these increasing demands through the greater use of primary energy resources such as oil, natural gas and coal results in negative environmental effects, natural resources have been devastated as a result of serious errors in energy policies; imperfect planning knowledge, insufficient organizational and legal mechanisms and the sensitive balance between resource protection and use was lost. At this point, the use of renewable energy resources was accepted as a solution to this problem, and the importance of the issue was emphasized with international treaties.1 Attention was also paid to this issue in the Europeans Union’s acquis and the use of renewable energy resources among EU Member states were envisaged to increase following the Renewable Energy Directive (2001/77/EC)

1 United Nations (UN) Framework Convention on Climate

Change (9 May 1992) and Kyoto Protocol (11 December 1997).

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(Szarka 2004). The contribution of renewable energy in Europe was 6% in 2006, and targets were set of 12% by late 2010 and 20% by late 2020.2 It was reported that among the EU Members, Denmark, Germany, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Spain, Sweden and Holland are steadily making progress towards the European target (Anon 2010). During the past several years, many countries have increasingly adopted energy efficiency and renewable energy policies. Turkey, a developing country, is going through a parallel process to these international developments in renewable energy. The importance of the issue of sustainable energy supply was emphasized in national legal documents;3 some organizational structural changes were implemented and the use of renewable energy resources within Turkey has increased. Within this process, among the renewable energy resources such as hydropower, biopower, geothermal power and solar power (Bakis 2007), wind energy gained prominence due to a number of environmental advantages. In fact, although it seems to have gained importance in recent years, the use of wind power has always been important throughout the history of humanity. The process started with the manufacture of the first wind machines in the twelfth century and made great progress between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries. In 1891, a Dane, Poul Lacour first produced electricity from the wind (Bilgili 2009). Today, studies show that in suitable regions, the use of wind energy has reached a similar level to the primary energy resources. Many countries support the use of wind, power due to its environmental advantages, providing official incentives to support the sector, to reduce costs and aim to

2 European Climate Change Programme and Sixth Environmental Action Programme, Commission of the European Communities Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Resources. 3 National Development Plans, Country Energy Strategy Report Electricity Energy Market and Supply Security Strategy Paper (2009 2023). Country Energy Strategy Report.

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eliminate the perverse economic incentives that previously incentivized the use of fossil fuels (Albostan et al. 2009). Utilization of wind energy is gradually coming to the forefront in the EU countries, and especially in the USA, Canada and Sweden (Johansson and Laike 2007). Europe (28,835 MW) and North America (6,678 MW) previously led the global wind energy market (Strachen et al. 2006). However, in 2009, Asia became the largest global producer of wind power, as a result of the breakthrough of China (Durak 2010). The World Energy Council has estimated that new wind capacity worldwide will reach 180– 474 GW by the year 2020, which equates to C100 to C300 billion worth of business (Akpinar and Akpinar 2006; Celik et al. 2007). It is expected that more than 100,000 MW of wind energy will be installed in Europe alone by the year 2030 (Akpinar 2006; Celik et al. 2007). Turkey, which is currently negotiating accession to the European Union, is one of the countries with the highest wind energy potential in Europe. Turkey can theoretically meet all of its domestic energy needs with its technical potential of 83,000 MW (Bayrakçı and Delikanlı 2007). Following assessment of the most attractive sites, a series of six wind regions were determined in Turkey, the Marmara Sea Region, Mediterranean Coast, Aegean Sea Coast and the Anatolia Inland (Kaygusuz 2007). The minimum wind speed in these regions was found to be 3.5 and 5 m/s at the highest at a height of 10 m.4 The existing wind farms in Turkey are concentrated in these regions (Fig. 1). Despite Turkey’s potential for wind power, wind studies are relatively recent. The early studies, which started in the mid-1980s, were limited to determining the wind potential. Some minor applications were realized from 1995, and the first wind energy plant was established in Cesme. Following this start, the low investment interest in wind energy started to increase due to legal

4 In another source, it is stated that these speeds can reach up to7–8.5 m/s, especially in Northwest Aegean coasts (Guler 2009). Their combined theoretical energy potential is between 1,000–3,000 kWh annually.

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Fig. 1 The map of Turkey’s wind patterns and existing wind plants5

and technical regulations (Albostan et al. 2009). This interest has a positive effect on practice as well and the wind energy increased from 600 MW during the period from 1998, when the first wind farm with 15 MW power was established, to 20076 (Aras 2003; Kaygusuz 2007). The number of wind farms is rapidly increasing, although they are not yet at the desired level. These developments were discussed in a 2009 Activity Report, published by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. The report notes that 15 (537,300 MW) of 82 publicly funded plants that started operation in 2009 were wind plants, and 15 (439.1 MW) of 80 private sector electricity plants that were put into operation were wind plants (Fig. 2). Based on these developments, a series of related laws and regulations were implemented. With these legal regulations, the relevant administrations were determined and the organizational

5 The base-map was taken from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, General Directorate of State Meteorology Works; the wind plants and capacities of Turkey were processed by the authors. 6 MENR

(2009), 2009 Action Report.

structure of the sector was thereby defined. The introduction of these legal regulations is of great importance for Turkey, which is going through the EU membership process, in terms of compliance with the EU acquis. However, the energy chapter, which is among the chapters to be negotiated, has not been opened yet and negotiations for the environment chapter started in December 2009. The acquis on environmentally sustainable renewable wind energy should be regarded as a whole in the negotiations regarding environment and energy. Thus, within the scope of the environment chapter, studies on harmonization with the EU acquis are progressing at full speed.

Turkish legislation and wind energy The tendency towards wind energy in Turkey has not only increased the interest and investments in the sector but also has been supported with legal regulations. In this section, the Turkish legislation will be analyzed, beginning from the Constitution, which is the highest legal regulation according to the hierarchy of norms. The environment right, which is the right to live in a balanced and healthy environment, was defined in the 1982 Turkish Constitution and

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Fig. 2 Wind energy installation power development (2000–2009)7

vesting this right was accepted within the duties of the State. Therefore, it may be suggested that, indirectly, the constitutional definition of these environmental rights actually provides strong legal support for transition to renewable energy. The right to environment vested in the Constitution is implemented in the Environmental Law Act,8 which clearly states that “renewable energy should be supported”. The Electricity Market Law9 (2001) includes a provision for the encouragement of those who establish a plant below a certain size, which is based on incentivizing renewable energy resources. In the same law, the State is responsible for “taking the necessary precautions and encouraging people to support the use of renewable energy resources in electricity production”. This objective is also supported by the Law on Utilization of Renewable Energy Resources for the Purpose of Generating Electrical Energy,10 which aims “to expand the utilization of renewable energy resources for generating electrical energy, to benefit from these resources in secure, economic and qualified manner, to increase the diversification of energy resources, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. . . ”. Moreover, wind energy was clearly expressed as a renewable energy resource and electricity generation source in this law.

7 MENR

2010 (2010–2014 Strategic Report).

8 Law

no 2872 published in the Official Gazette dated 11.08.1983. 9 Law no 4628 published in the Official Gazette dated 03.03.2001. 10 Law no 5346 published in the Official Gazette dated 10.05.2005.

All the sectoral objectives of Turkey since 1963 have been determined by 5-year Development Plans, the 9th of which is currently in force. These plans are included in the Turkish legal system as part of the legal framework. However, while the importance of renewable energy resources is included in these plans in general, wind energy is not directly included. In this regard, it was stated in the 5th plan that the necessary enterprises would be supported in order to quickly benefit from renewable energy resources. In the 6th and 7th development plans, it was emphasized that the necessary mechanisms should be adopted to popularize the use of renewable energy resources. In the 8th plan, it was emphasized that the natural environment should be protected and new precautions would be taken to improve and popularize new and renewable energy resources. In the 9th plan, it was stated that a law was enacted in order to increase the share of renewable energy resources in electricity generation; while the Energy Efficiency Law, preparations for which were completed, could not be made. Moreover, to the aim was to maximize the share of domestic and renewable energy resources within the energy production system. It is seen that the general objectives are determined by focusing on renewable energy resources in plans of the country; however, wind energy is not explicitly referenced in these plans. However, wind energy is clearly mentioned in the 2010–2014 Strategic Report of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources; it was stated that the installed wind energy capacity of 800 MW in 2009 was aimed to be 20,000 MW in 2023. It is seen that the Turkish legal framework is sufficient to achieve these concrete objectives. These regulations also define the organizational

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Fig. 3 Wind energy in Turkey: competent authorities

mechanisms responsible for wind energy investments and determine their functions. Accordingly, the main State administration is the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, which performs this duty through the Directorships and Companies affiliated to the Ministry (Fig. 3).

Environmental impact assessment and wind energy Although the use of wind energy has environmental advantages, it causes a limited number of negative environmental impacts. These cited negative impacts include harm to birds11 and to soil hydrology, nuisance and distress to local people, depressed house values near turbines and reduced amenity to the general public (Szarka 2004). It is clear that environmentally friendly, renewable energy from wind power has fewer negative environmental impacts when compared

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studies confirmed that wind tribunes harm birds; however they show that this effect is at a very minimal level (Devereux et al. 2008; De Lucas et al. 2008; Smallwood et al. 2009). Other factors that also endanger birds include highways (Fajardo et al. 1998), power lines (Ferrer et al. 1991; Janss and Ferrer 1998), radio/television antennas (Stahlecker 1979; Smith 1985), glass wimdows (Klem 1990), poisoning due to human activities (Harmata et al. 1999) and illegal hunting (Villafuerte et al. 1998).

with other energy sources, and it is a useful tool to meet national energy demand. However, the potential negative effects of wind power projects cannot be neglected, and should be subject to environmental impact assessment (EIA).12 Therefore, proposed wind energy investments, which will increase significantly in coming years, should definitely be subject to environmental impact assessment. Within the Turkish environmental legislation, the potential environmental impacts of investments are subjected to an EIA procedure. EIA is an important tool, which aims to protect the environment and prevent environmental harms before they occur. As environmental issues have gained importance in Turkey, basic environmental subjects

12 Some

authorities define EIA as a “global planning and management tool for reducing the harmful results of development” (Ahammed and Nixon 2006), while others describe it as “a determination tool to decide this procedure”. In various definitions, EIA is sometimes expressed as “a procedure which determines the environmental effects of a definite project or development” (CEDGM 2009); sometimes the determination of the required precautions and supervision procedures are also added to that expression (Güne¸s and Co¸skun 2004). There are various definitions of EIA, which describe it as “a technical tool of application” (Turgut 2003); a judicial participative method, which aims to protect the environment (Saygılı 2007); and a “useful tool which aims for continuous development” (Peterlin et al. 2008; Albergaria and Fidelis 2006).

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have been defined, politics have been determined and legal and institutional structures have been developed. During this period, the requirement for EIA, which is one of the major tools of environmental management, has become a current issue. In Turkish EIA regulation, the activities that may have environmental effects are classified within two Appendices. The projects listed in Appendix I of the EIA Regulations have greater environmental impact potentials and such projects are obligated to prepare an EIA Report (EIAR). The Scoping and Examining-Evaluation Commission investigate the prepared EIA and a decision of either “EIA Positive (Accepted)” or “EIA Negative (Refused)”is given by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF). An EIA positive decision states that as result of the measures to be taken, any predicted negative environmental impact of the project can be kept at acceptable levels in accordance with the legislation and scientific principles; thus, the project is acceptable. A decision of EIA negative states that the realization of the project is unadvisable due to its negative effects on the environment. The projects noted in Appendix II of the EIA Regulations are smaller scale projects, and they are subject to a pre-investigation procedure named “Selection and Elimination Criteria”. At the end of this procedure, a decision of “EIA required” or “EIA not required” is given by the MOEF. An “EIA required decision” states that the environmental impacts of the project that is subject to selection and elimination criteria should be examined in more detail, and that the preparation of EIAR is required. In this way, project will obligate to the Appendix I of the EIA Regulations procedure. A decision of “EIA not required” states that the project that is subject to selection and elimination criteria does not have significant environmental effects and that the preparation of EIAR is not required. For projects where EIA is required, the procedures for projects within Appendices I and II of the EIA Regulations differ significantly from each other. While the Appendix II of the EIA Regulations Procedure is an easy and fast process, Appendix I of the EIA Regulations requires effort, financial support, knowledge, time and intensive working.

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In the system described above, the application of EIA to wind energy plants is dependent upon the energy they generate. Accordingly, electricity plants generating 10 MW and above are classified within Appendix II of the EIA Regulations. The plants below this capacity threshold are not subjected to environmental impact assessment. When the situation in Turkey is analyzed, only three wind energy plants out of 29 generate energy less than 10 MW; therefore, they are not subjected to EIA procedures. The remaining 26 plants that were subjected to Appendix II of the EIA Regulations procedures were subjected to selection–elimination criteria. Therefore, a pre-investigation will be conducted for these investments in order to decide if EIA is required. If the related authority makes a decision of “EIA not required”, the project may be started without EIA. Therefore, Appendix II of the EIA Regulations procedures are generally suitable for assessing the potential environmental effects of wind energy investments. However, wind energy projects that generate less than 10 MW power may be exempt from the EIA procedures. In our opinion, all the projects should be subjected to Appendix II of the EIA Regulations, regardless of the energy they generate. This is because when the cumulative effects of multiple investments are considered, it is possible that the cumulative effects of these projects harm the environment. Therefore, it may be appropriate to calculate the effects of multiple projects in this way and to make relevant changes to the EIA legislation.

Assessment and conclusion The use of renewable energy resources, especially wind energy, has increased recently, and this growth is likely to continue, due to the environmental benefits of moving to renewables and the opportunities that this provides. The expansion of the renewable energy sector in Turkey parallels similar developments seen around the world. Turkey is one of several countries with a high wind energy capacity and has implemented legal, organizational and technical structures to support this technology. Wind energy in Turkey will be assessed using SWOT analysis in order to be able

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Table 1 SWOT Analysis of Wind energy in Turkey Strengths Clearly defined Turkish legislation on wind energy.

Weaknesses The plants remaining below 10 MW are exempt from the EIA system. Wind energy generation plants are located far from the consumption centers. The level of awareness regarding the subject is insufficient The investment incentives for the sector are insufficient

The legislation in convergence with EU Criteria. Turkey has a strong institutional framework for this issue. The subject gains importance in the national energy planning strategy. The general acceptance of the necessity for wind energy High wind energy potential. The Ministry reviews the environmental information about the subject. The interest of investors is high. Opportunities Presence of supportive processes within international environmental law and increasing corporation facilities

Threats Overseas loans and technology may be required. Current investments have not reached the desired level. Wind farms can cause noise pollution. They create negative social effects.

Increasing environmental awareness within public opinion Renewables will reduce Turkey’s dependency on current forms of high cost, imported energy. It will enable reduction of energy generation costs. The importance given to this topic will facilitate the EU negotiations about environmental issues. The necessary scientific infrastructure exists within universities. There will be new ways to benefit from international incentives and loans.

to illuminate the development in this regard and to reach the targets in this step of the present study13 (Table 1). 13 SWOT

(strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is a technique that foresees to help to define the strategic directives for organization and application (Paliwal 2006), and it requires a large investigation of a systematic opinion and the factors to be analyzed (Aktan 2007). This analysis aims to provide information about the applicability of the assessed system in the future. With this analysis, the subject can be handled from different points of view, the superiorities may be increased, weaknesses may be decreased, the opportunities may be used and by avoiding the threats, a successful strategy may be formed (Shinno et al. 2006). This technique exhibits all the ways surrounding the subject and eases to understand and comprehend the subject; therefore, it plays an instructive role for the managers in the periods of decision making, applications and strategy formulations (Toksoy et al. 2009) Therefore, SWOT analysis provides a useful method to examine the wind energy.

They may reduce rigid energy pricing in the region where they are established. They present a threat to bird populations.

In the summary evaluation above, there is a clear balance in favor of the significant benefits and opportunities for Turkey associated with wing energy. Moreover, this result also corresponds to Turkey’s stated objectives for wind energy. The legal and organizational infrastructure directed to the establishment of wind energy plants is quite powerful. Some related laws and regulations are in place; the importance of the subject was mentioned in the national Development Plans and energy reports and some objectives were determined. In the official website of MENR, all the wind energy projects and the data of the continuing projects take place in the electronic environment. In addition, important sectoral guidelines for wind energy were prepared and made available online (http://www.epdk.gov.tr/web/ guest/yayinlar_elektrik_piyasasi). These practices are very important and positive factors in ensuring managerial transparency, informing the public, ac-

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tive participation in the procedure and auditing. Another strong point in favour of wind energy is the general acceptance by all sides of its necessity and benefits. Thus, representatives from various interests that participated in the Turkey Wind Energy Workshop expressed positive opinions about the development of wind energy (TÜREB 2010). Wind energy is of greater importance for Turkey in terms of reducing fuel costs, eliminating long-term fuel price risks, reducing dependency on other countries in terms of economic, political and procurement risks (energy security) and being a domestic and continuously usable resource (Ba¸skaya 2010). This is because Turkey is in the process of developing, and so its continued dependency on overseas energy supplies presents the risk of serious energy deficiencies from time to time. Therefore, as Turkey has sufficient wind power capacity to meet domestic demand, the appropriate management, use and policy structure for this energy sector is an important means of reducing national import expenditures. If the previous progress on environmental negotiations is sustained on the road to Turkey’s membership of the EU, the increasing environmental awareness will support greater wind power investments in the country. The relevant public administrations can contribute to increasing environmental awareness by providing access to appropriate environmental information and increasing transparency. These administrative organizations facilitate public participation in the decision-making processes by publishing information about energy investments and the related procedures on their websites. One of the opportunities of wind energy is the increase in the corporation facilities in international environmental law. Notably, EU, UN, World Bank, and environmentally improved countries, numerous corporation facilities have emerged. Besides the important environmental advantages compared to other energy sources, it is known that there are a limited number of negative environmental impacts associated with wind plants. When the cumulative impacts are considered, wind plant projects should not remain exempted from the EIA system, regardless of their individual production capacity. Therefore,

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the Turkish EIA legislation should be revised in this respect. In conclusion, wind energy is a clean, affordable and renewable form of energy. As understood from the assessment above, the weaknesses and threats associated with wind energy can be significantly eliminated or their impacts can be minimized. Overall, the significant benefits and opportunities of wind energy are prominent and far outweigh the potential negative factors. It is clear that Turkey, with its high wind energy potential, cannot be indifferent to the global tendency towards wind energy. Turkey has given the necessary importance to this subject, particularly in recent years. These theoretically ensured powerful aspects are expected to stand out in also practice in the near future.

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